Wmmmm 

fiffiifflfiflffilfflll 



mm mRSSma 

ram iSfflSfiii 





m 



■■HHH 

JMhhi 

1 iliilllll 
SlBllllI 

IMIB 

lililB 

Warn 

■Pi 



M 






■ 

i _ 




*m 



m 






ft 

iA2- 



ELOCUTION 



SOURCES AND ELEMENTS 



ITS POWER. 



A TEXT-BOOK FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, AND A BOOK FOR 

EVERY PUBLIC SPEAKER, AND STUDENT OF 

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



By J. H. McLLVAINE, 

Professor of Belles Lettres in Princeton College. 



i 

NEW YOKK: 
CHARLES SCRIBNER AND COMPANY, 

1870. 



Trt4->» 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by 

CHARLES SCRIBNER AND COMPANY, 

in the clerk's office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 

District of New York. 



PREFA OR. 



The author of this work has been engaged in the practice 
of public speaking, almost without interruption, for thirty- 
years ; during the last ten of which, he has also been a sys- 
tematic student and teacher of the art of elocution. When 
he accepted the chair of Belles Lettres in Princeton Col- 
lege, in 1860, he received a special request from the Board 
of Trustees to work up this much neglected department of 
education, although it was not properly included in the du- 
ties of his professorship ; and with this object in view, they 
gave him a laborious and faithful assistant in Prof. S. Gr. 
Peabody. The notes and criticisms, which gradually accu- 
mulated upon his hands in successive courses of instruction 
and training, are here offered to the public in a systematic 
form, now that his work in the College is drawing to a close. 

The attention of teachers and students of this art, is 
requested, in appreciation of the following points. 1. Nearly 
one half of the work consists in the exhibition of the intel- 
lectual, moral, esthetical and physical sources of power in de- 
livery, which, it is believed, have never before been treated 
of as included in the art of elocution. 2. The second part 
contains several chapters on Phonology, in which, especially 



IV PREFACE. 

under the heads of articulation, accent and pronunciation, 
new views are advanced, which it is hoped may have an 
interest for phonologists, students of the English language, 
and all who desire to pronounce it correctly, independently 
of the relation of these chapters to the principal object of the 
work. 3. The whole matter of the work has been carefully 
analyzed or generalized under principal and subordinate 
heads, in order to facilitate the comprehension of particulars, 
and to aid the memory in recitation. This last point the 
author regards as of such importance, that he has allowed the 
beauty of a perfectly plain page to be sacrificed to the utility 
of black letter and italics, for the purpose of distinguishing 
these principal and subordinate heads. 

It will be evident to all who may look into this work, that 
it has cost a great deal of labor ; so much, indeed, that the 
author pities himself when he thinks of it, and cannot but 
fear that it might have been more usefully employed. Yet 
he cannot flatter himself that the work does not contain 
many errors and defects. Such as it is, however, it is offered 
to the public, not without the hope that the views presented 
may continue to be useful to many who are engaged in the 
study or practice of this beautiful and most useful of all arts. 

Peinceton, Feb. 26, 1870. 






CONTENTS 



INTRODUCTION. 

CHAP. PAGE 

I. — The Importance of a Good Delivery 1 

H— Utility of the Study of Elocution 15 

PART I. 

I. — Preliminary Observations, and Fundamental 

Principles 45 

II.— Power in Thought 50 

IH.— Feeling 58 

TV. — Earnestness 83 

V. — The Mental State of Direct Address to the Audi- 
ence 93 

VI. — Attention and Sympathy 103 

VII. — Mastery of the Subject-matter in Extempore Dis- 
course 116 

VIII. — Facility of Eemembering in Memoriter Delivery 129 

IX. — Familiarity with the Manuscript 138 

X. — Vitality, Favorable Moods, and Physical Regimen 153 

XI.— Self-control 165 



Contents. 
PART II. 

CHAP. PAGE 

I.— Method of Treatment 177 

II. — The Vocal Organism in Relation to Vocal Culture 181 

HI.— Articulation 199 

IV.— Accentuation 227 

V. — Pronunciation 23.9 

VI.— The Qualities of the Voice 294 

VII.— The Powers of the Voice 308 

VIII.— Pitch and Inflection 321 

IX.— Time and Pause 346 

X.— Force 360 

XL— Emphasis 368 

XII.— Gesture 384 



INTRODUCTION. 

OHAPTEE I. 

«HE IMPORTANCE OF A GOOD DELIVERY. 

§ 1. The principal reason for discussing this subject is that 
the importance of elocution is yery imperfectly appreci- 
ated, both by educators and public speakers. 

It would seem to be obvious of itself that they 
whose business it is to speak in public, should spare 
no pains in order to be able to speak well. As a 
matter of fact, however, we often find it far otherwise. 
For while good writers are not at all uncommon, 
good speaking is notoriously a rare accomplishment. 
The professions which depend most immediately 
upon speaking, are crowded with failures ; and of the 
many young men of superior talents, and culture, 
who thus fail, few seem to have any suspicion that 
the chief, and often the sole cause, is their wretched 
delivery. And whilst rhetoric is thoroughly taught, 



2 Introduction. 

elocution has hardly any recognized place in our 
systems and institutions of liberal education. 

Hence it seems plain that this art is very im- 
perfectly appreciated, not only by educators, but al- 
so by professional orators themselves. It is in 
place, therefore, to offer here some considerations 
which may serve to exhibit the importance of a 
good delivery. 

§ 2. Oral speaking is essential to eloquence, and even to lan- 
guage itself. 

1. That oral speaking is essential to language is proved 
by the authority of tJie greatest masters of linguistic 
science. 

The following quotation is from Wilhelm von 
Humboldt, who has been called the father of Com- 
parative Philology. " We must exclude everything 
from the definition of language, but actual speak- 
ing The essence of language lies in the liv- 
ing utterance, in that which does not suffer itself to 
be apprehended in the sundered elements of written 

words It is only by the spoken word that 

the speaker breathes his own life into the souls of 
his hearers Written language is only an im- 
perfect and mummy-hke embalming, of which the 
highest use is that it may serve as a means of re- 
producing the living utterance." In fact it was the 
recognition of the truth thus enunciated, which res- 
cued the study of language from that inveterate 
pedantry by which it had long been paralyzed, and 
made it that living and progressive science which it 
has now become. 



Importance of a Good Delivery. 3 

2. That oral speaking is essential to eloquence is 
proved from the etymology of the word, from tJw fact 
that the poiver of a word is inseparable from its sound, 
and from the fact that the masters of eloquence have 
always been speakers. 

(1.) The etymology of the word eloquence 
is the same with that of elocution. Both of 
these words alike have for their base or root the 
idea of speaking. Further, they are compound- 
ed of e, from, and loquor, I speak ; expressing the 
notion of speaking from something. From what 
then does true eloquence speak? Doubtless the 
conception which suggested this composition of 
the word, was that eloquence speaks from the heart 
of man. It is from the depths of the rational and 
moral nature that the articulate human voice 
streams forth ; of which nature, therefore, it consti- 
tutes the most perfect, the noblest, that is to say, 
the eloquent expression. Hence it is only in an in- 
ferior sense that unspoken words can be called elo- 
quent. 

(2.) The true power of a word is inseparable from 
its sound. The articulation, tones, inflections, accent 
and emphasis, as also in the play of the features, and 
all the motions of the limbs and body, with which a 
word is spoken, are essential elements of its expres- 
siveness and power. They express modifications 
and shades of thought, and ever-varying intensity 
of emotion and passion, which written words do not 
even suggest. They are, therefore, the flesh and 



* Introduction. 

blood, the very life, of which written words are lit- 
tle more than the bony skeleton. 

(3.) The models of eloquence have always been 
speakers. That the greatest masters of eloquence, in 
all ages of the world, have been orators, requires no 
proof. It needs only to run over their names. But 
why should this be so, if oral speaking were not 
essential to the blossom and golden fruit of true 
eloquence ? 

§ 3. Delivery is to discourse what performance is to music 

This view of the importance of delivery in dis- 
course, is confirmed by the close analogy that sub- 
sists between music and articulate speech. For 
music is a language of tones addressed to the sen- 
sibilities, or emotional nature, whilst speech is a 
language of tones and articulations addressed to the 
intellect and the sensibilities ; and both these forms 
of language may be noted in written .symbols, and 
reproduced in vocal utterances. The analogy be- 
tween them is therefore very close , and we shall find 
it useful hereafter in many ways. But here what we 
have to consider is that it holds good to exhibit the 
importance of delivery in the three following partic- 
ulars. 

1. Both discourse and music 'produce their proper 
effects by means of sound. 

For as the most accomplished musician can 
comprehend only a little of the sentiment and 



Importance of a Good Delivery. 5 

force of a piece of music, and can derive but a fee- 
ble pleasure from barely running his eye over the 
score ; as it is only when he comes to render it with 
his voice or instrument that its full' and proper 
effect can be produced upon himself or others ;— 
such, in great measure is the difference between 
the power and effect of discourse as presented to 
the eye, and that which it produces when addressed 
to the ear. 

2. Both discourse and music, when poor but well ren- 
dered, are better than ivJien good and poorly rendered. 

As a poor piece of music, well performed, pro- 
duces a better effect than that which is ever so good 
in itself, but ill-performed, so an inferior discourse, 
well delivered, will commonly be found to accom- 
plish its object far better than a superior discourse 
badly delivered. 

3. Both discourse and music, wJien good but poorly 
rendered, are powerless, or tliey defeat their own 
aims. 

As a good piece of music, badly performed, fails 
of its proper effect, and either awakens no emotions 
at all, or a wholly different class from those which 
are intended, so the best discourse in the world, 
being spoiled in the delivery, either falls powerless 
and dead, or exerts an influence to defeat its own 
aims. Such discourses in the pulpit often put their 
hearers to sleep, when they are intended to excite 
to watchfulness and prayer ; they are heard with 
weariness and pain, when they are intended to im- 
part spiritual refreshment and joy ; or aiming to 



6 Introduction. 

awaken pity and love, they call forth only indigna- 
tion and disgust. In these and other particulars 
delivery is to discourse what performance is to 
music. 

§ 4. The opinions of the great orators and rhetoricians are 
strongly in favor of the importance of a good delivery. 

The most celebrated orators and rhetoricians, in 
all ages of the world, have ascribed the very greatest 
importance to a good delivery. The views of only 
a few of them can be given here. 

1. 3fassillon, court preacher to Louis XIV., and 
one of the most eloquent men of his time, being 
asked, which of his sermons he regarded as the best, 
replied, " The one I remembered best ;" by which 
he meant, of course, the one he had delivered best. 

2. Quintilian also teaches us that " it is not of so 
much importance what our thoughts are, as it is in 
what manner they are delivered ; since those whom 
we address are moved only as they hear." "We 
need not subscribe to this statement in its utmost 
force, yet the authority is a very high one. 

3. Gicero, as standing in the very front rank, both 
of rhetoricians and orators, is a still higher author- 
ity ; and he expresses himself yet more strongly, if 
possible, in the following words : " All the parts of 
oratory succeed as they are delivered. Delivery, I 
say, has the sole and supreme power in oratory- 
Without it a speaker of the greatest mental power 
cannot be held in any esteem ; while with this qual- 
ification, one of moderate abilities may surpass 
those of the greatest talent." 



Introduction. 7 

4. Demosthenes, the highest of all authorities, ex- 
presses himself in the strongest words of all. Both 
Cicero and Quintilian inform us that he, being 
asked what was of the first importance in oratory, 
replied, " Action ; " being asked what was next in 
importance, replied again, " Action ; " and being 
asked what was of the third degree of importance, 
he answered still, " Action." Thus according to 
Quintilian he continued to give the same answer as 
often as ha was questioned; "so that," in the 
words of this author, " he may be thought to have 
esteemed ' action ' not merely the principal, but 
the only excellence." In order now to appreciate 
the full force of this, it must be understood that 
what the Greeks meant by action, was precisely that 
which the Romans, and we after them, call delivery. 

5. JEschines, in fine, the great rival, and barely 
the inferior of Demosthenes, having read to his class 
at Rhodes, where he taught eloquence, the Oration 
on the Crown, which had procured his banishment 
from Athens, and the class expressing their un- 
bounded admiration — exclaimed, " And what if 
you had heard him deliver it himself ! " thus, not- 
withstanding its unrivalled excellence as a rhetorical 
composition, ascribing its irresistible power to the 
delivery. 

Such have been the views upon this point of all 
the great rhetoricians and orators, with hardly an ex- 
ception, whose opinions have been left on record ; 
and it would seem that, with such an array of au- 
thority against them, those who undervalue the im- 



8 Importance of a Good Delivery. 

portance of a good delivery are changeable with 
little less than infatuation. 

§ 5. The example of Socrates in that he wrote nothing, but 
confined himself to oral discourse, shows his appreciation 
of the power with which thought is clothed by delivery. 

It may not be at once apparent how the example 
of Socrates, who was not an orator in the common 
acceptation of the word, can be adduced in illustra- 
tion of the importance of good delivery. But we 
must remember that he was eminently a talker, and 
perhaps the greatest master of the art of discourse 
in Athens, during the nourish and bloom of Athen- 
ian eloquence and culture. Also he was the most 
successful educator, with a single exception, the 
world has ever seen. He educated a greater num- 
ber of world-renowned men than ever before or 
since came forth from the school of any one teacher. 
His success appears so wonderful to those who 
have looked into it, that an eminent philosopher of 
modern times, Condillac, himself a practical educa- 
tor, hazards the assertion, that " since the time of 
Socrates the secret of education has been lost." 
Now that all-moulding influence which this man ex- 
erted, had for its sole instrumentality, oral speak- 
ing — he wrote nothing. All that we know of the 
doctrines he inculcated, or of the methods he em- 
ployed, is derived from the writings of his disciples ; 
among whom such men as Plato and Xenophon 
could find no better way of commending their phi- 
losophical speculations to the world, than by profess- 
ing to report the conversations of their great master. 



Introduction. 9 

So deeply was he impressed with the conviction 
that the great work which he had undertaken could 
be accomplished by no instrumentality except oral 
speaking, that he deliberately rejected every other. 
For when asked why he did not write out his teach- 
ings in a permanent form, he is said to have replied : 
" I would rather write upon the hearts of living 
men, than upon the skins of dead sheep." The sig- 
nificance of such words from such a man can hardly 
be overestimated. 

§ 6. The example of the Lord Jesus Christ, in that he also 
wrote nothing, shows a similar appreciation of the supe- 
rior power of oral discourse. 

A similar but stronger argument may be drawn 
from the example of a greater than Socrates, our 
Lord Jesus Christ. He, being the incarnate Word 
of God, was the only perfect master of human elo- 
quence that ever lived — never man spake like this man. 
He also was an educator, who sought to impress 
himself upon his disciples, and to mould them into 
his own likeness ; and his success was such that they 
all became celebrated throughout the world, and 
their influence upon its history has been immeasura- 
bly greater than that of any other men the world has 
ever seen. He also wrote nothing — he confined 
himself to the sole instrument of oral speech. Now 
when we consider how desirable it seems to us that 
he should have written out in precise form, and in 
minute detail, those divine truths by the faith of 
which the world was to be regenerated and purified, 
instead of leaving them to be reported from his lips 



10 Importance of a Good Delivery. 

by those who heard him, we cannot fail to see that 
it must have been with deliberate design that he 
confined himself to oral speech. He also evidently 
would write his doctrines upon the hearts of living 
men, rather than upon the skins of dead sheep. 

From this striking agreement between the two 
greatest men (if it be lawful so to speak) and most 
successful educators the world has ever known, and 
whose vitalizing influence upon human nature has 
been so much deeper and wider and more perman- 
ent than that of any others, it may perhaps be in- 
ferred that. Con dillac's lost secret of education is to 
be found in that all-moulding personal influence of 
the teacher, which can be exerted through no other 
instrumentality but that of the truth orally delivered. 
If this were so, it would teach us a lesson of tran- 
scendent value with respect to the importance of 
such a delivery as shall be adequate to express, and 
to impress upon others, the truth which we have to 
communicate. 

§ 7. The fact that the Lord ordained the oral preaching of 
the gospel as the means of propagating the Christian relig- 
ion, confirms the preceding interpretation of his exam- 
ple, and affords another argument for the importance of 
delivery. 

The foregoing interpretation of the example of 
Christ is confirmed by the fact that he expressly 
ordained preaching as the great means and instru- 
mentality for the propagation of the gospel — 
the Christian religion. For this also must have 
been with deliberate design, in view of adequate 






Introduction. 11 

reasons. One of these, no doubt, was the great 
number of persons who were then, and have been 
in every subsequent age, unable to read. But this 
could not have been the controlling reason. For if 
so, the preaching of the gospel would be unneces- 
sary to the learned, and might be superseded, in 
their case, by the silent perusal of the written Word. 
It is perfectly certain, however, from experience, that 
in the case of the learned, the solitary reading of 
the Scriptures, however important in itself, is no sub- 
stitute for the oral preaching of the gospel. The 
great reason, no doubt, was that Jesus, who kneio 
what was in man, was intimately acquainted with all 
those latent sensibilities of the soul, which can be 
reached and moved by nothing so powerfully as by 
the voice of the living preacher, by the truth incar- 
nate, as it were, and uttering itself in an oral form. 
With divine wisdom he adapted the means of our 
spiritual renovation to the principles of human na- 
ture. 

For when the Word is thus preached by the voice 
of a living man to a congregation of living men, 
it produces an effect upon their souls which is 
altogether peculiar. When, e. g. a Whitefield ut- 
ters the words, wretched man that I am, who 
shall deliver me from the body of this death/ they 
have an intensity and power unknown to the 
silent and solitary reader in his closet. Accord- 
ingly, as we know, some of the greatest successes 
of the gospel were achieved before the New Testa- 
ment was committed to writing, by the voice of the 
living preacher alone. 



12 Impoetance of a Good Delivery. 

This fact that the Lord, for such reasons, or- 
dained the oral preaching of the gospel as the great 
means of salvation, is perhaps the very strongest 
argument that could be given for such a delivery 
as shall be adequate to the truth. For the reasons 
in view of which we are required to preach the gos- 
pel, evidently require that we should preach it as 
well as possible; that is, in such oral forms as 
shall not disguise, nor obscure, nor pervert, but 
which shall be, in some measure at least, adequate 
to the expression of its great, world-regenerating 
ideas. 

§ 8. Bad delivery is a main cause of inefficiency in the pulpit. 

It is a complaint far more general than clergy- 
men themselves are commonly aware, that their 
ministrations are not clothed with that power which 
the cause they advocate demands, but are, in 
fact, characterized by an unnatural feebleness. Some 
there are who ascribe this to a lack of ability in 
the ministry ; others to a moral cause, namely, that 
the preachers themselves have little heartfelt ex- 
perience of the truth which they seek to impress 
upon their congregations. Bat these, although the 
most obvious suggestions, cannot always be the 
true reasons. For not unfrequently able and godly 
men are extremely feeble in the pulpit ; whilst 
others wield a far greater power, who yet are not 
distinguished from their brethren either by talents 
or piety. It is more rational, as well as more char- 
itable, to account for the fact by that wretched elo- 
cution which is so common in the pulpit ; and 



Impobtance of a Good Delivery. 13 

which, if it were not for the sacredness of its themes, 
and the solemnities of Divine worship, would not 
be tolerated by any audience in the world. For 
it has been well observed by one of the most ac- 
complished pulpit orators of our time, that " one 
reason why preaching is so much less effective than 
we should antecedently expect it to be, is that there 

is less of it than we ordinarily suppose Much 

of that which passes for preaching does not de- 
serve the name. It may be called a poor kind of 
singing, a tedious method of drawling, a soporific 
way of reading ; bul it is not such living utterance 
of thought as enkindles the eye, such gushing forth 
of emotion as cannot but have the effect of elo- 
quence All the dull, clumsy, turgid, weak, in- 
sipid, and in any way affected methods of delivery, 
are to be subtracted from the sum total of what is 
denominated preaching ; and then, how small the 
remainder !" There can be no doubt but that the 
prevalence of such abortive attempts at delivery, is 
a principal cause of that feebleness in the pulpit 
which is so much complained of, and of that want 
of interest in the preaching of the gospel which is 
manifested by increasing numbers of intelligent, 
and otherwise well disposed people, and which is 
one of the most sorrowful facts of our time. 

§ 9. Bad delivery is one of the most common causes of the 
ministerial throat disease. 

It would seem then, that he who imagines himself 
to be preaching the gospel whilst he violates al- 



14 Intboduction. 

most every law of oral speech, deceives himself, 
and commits no little sin — a sin which, like all 
others, does not fail to punish itself. For those 
wasting throat diseases, with which clergymen 
are afflicted more than any other class of public 
speakers, are often traceable physiologically to bad 
management of the voice, to the violation of those 
laws which nature has prescribed to articulate 
speaking — laws which, like all others established 
by the God of nature, can never be violated with 
impunity. This view is confirmed by the fact, to 
which many can bear witness, that no more effec- 
tual remedy for these diseases has been discovered, 
than a thorough course of sound elocutionary train- 
ing. 



CHAPTEE II. 

UTILITY OF THE STUDY OF ELOCUTION. 

§ 10. The principal objections to this study are, that 

delivery cannot be taught, that the study of it does 

harm rather than good, and that in order to be good 
speakers all we haye to do is to speak naturally. 

It is a question which has been much disputed 
both in ancient and modern times, whether a good 
delivery be a gift of nature, or an accomplishment 
to be acquired by art. The number and respecta- 
bility of those who have maintained the former 
view, and the plausibility of some of their argu- 
ments, are such as to challenge our candid atten- 
tion. The principal objections to this study, and 
those which have the most weight with intelligent 
persons, are the following. 

1. Delivery cannot he taught because it is incapable 
of analysis. 

Those who make this objection assure us that 
good speaking, or an eloquent delivery, is a result 
so extremely complex, and one that is due to such 
a multitude and variety of interworking causes, that 



16 Inteoductton. 

it must forever defy the most subtle and powerful 
analysis, and defeat all attempts to reduce it to 
the laws upon which it depends : consequently, that 
it cannot be taught nor learned, and the study of it 
can do no good, but must prove at best a waste of 
time and labor. 

2. The study of elocution cannot fail to do Ivarm. 
There are those, however, who oppose this study 

on the higher ground that it does harm. These 
objectors tell us that, by directing the attention of 
the student to the manner abstracted from the 
matter of discourse, and by putting him under 
training and practice according to fixed rules, it 
cramps the natural freedom of speaking, renders 
the delivery cold, spiritless and artificial, and gen- 
erates awkwardness, mannerism, affectation, and 
almost every other vice of elocution. " Probably," 
says Archbishop Whately, " not a single instance 
could be found of any one who has attained, by the 
study of any system of instruction that has hitherto 
appeared, a really good delivery ; but there are many 
— probably as many as have fully tried the experi- 
ment — who by this means have been totally spoiled, 
who have fallen irrecoverably into an affected style 
of spouting, worse in all respects than their original 
mode of delivery." 

3. We must ignore all rules, forget that tJiere is any 
such thing as art, and speak naturally. 

Those who make such objections tell us that this 
is the one sole precept by the observance of which 
it is possible to attain to good speaking. In con- 
firmation of this, they point us to the natural grace 



Utility of the Study of Elocution. 17 

and propriety of common conversation, and to that 
with which children express themselves ; and they 
call us to observe how all this is lost, giving place to 
innumerable vices of elocution, as soon as the 
speakers, whether children or grown persons, are 
put under training. 

§11. The influence of these objections has been very great, 
and has led to the general neglect of this stndy ; hence the 
necesity of refuting" them. 

The foregoing objections to the study of elocu- 
tion are extremely plausible ; they are urged by very 
high authorities in education ; and they fall in with 
our natural indolence. Hence they have exerted, 
and do still exert a great influence, not only upon 
the public mind, but also upon educators and 
speakers themselves. Thus it is that systematic 
study and methodical training in this art have so 
generally fallen into neglect and disuse. For, as 
already observed, it hardly enters as an appreciable 
element into the prescribed course of a liberal edu- 
cation. The consequences of this, however, would 
have been far worse than they are, if it had not 
.been for the zeal and labors of professed elocution- 
ists, giving private lessons in our collegiate institu- 
tions, but who often have no regular connection 
with the faculty. The want of elocutionary train- 
ing is especially noticeable in the education of 
clergymen, who are instructed to spare no pains in 
mastering the nicest theological distinctions, until 
they can split a theological hair into east, west, 
north, and south parts — an accomplishment which, 
however valuable for purposes of strife and debate, 



18 Introduction. 






can afford, it would seem, but little aid in proclaim- 
ing the great and simple facts and truths of the gos- 
pel — whilst yet they devote hardly any time or labor 
to acquiring a good delivery, without which it is 
impossible for them to preach with acceptability or 
power. Hence the absolute necessity that we 
should here undertake to refute these objections, 
and to indicate the utility of elocutionary studies 
and training. 

§ 12. Elocution is an art, therefore it can be taught and 
learned ; that by which it is distinguished from other 
arts, does not make it an exception ; it is the art of speak- 
ing, the first elements of of which we learn in childhood 
by imitation. 

1. Elocution is an art because it conforms to the defi- 
nition of art 

The most general definition of art, is knowledge 
applied to production. Elocution conforms to this 
definition ; for it applies the knowledge of vocal 
sounds to the production of oral discourse. Now it 
belongs to the very nature of an art that it does not 
come of itself, but it must be taught and learned. 
Hence it is never expected that any one should attain 
proficiency in any other art, such as music or paint- 
ing, war or surgery, ship-building or shoe-making, 
without having studied and learned it. Nor can 
any valid reason be assigned for making this art the 
sole exception. 

2. The fact that it is an art which all must exercise 
does not make it an exception. 

Speaking is distinguished from some other arts 
by the fact that it is one which all persons must 



Utility of the Study of Elocution. 19 

exercise or practice, after some fashion, in all the 
affairs of life ; and hence all are endowed, in a 
higher or lower degree, with the organs and faculty 
of speech. But this does not make it an exception ; 
for herein it agrees with other arts, the art of think- 
ing, e. g. which it is conceded may be taught, and 
must be learned. Every objection from this source 
against improvement of the organs and faculty of 
speech by training and culture, is therefore equally 
valid against the training and cultivation of the 
organs and faculty of thought. 

8. The art of speaking is essentially an imitative art, 
the rudiments of which are actually taught and learned 
in childhood. 

It would seem to be impossible to deny that the 
art of speaking can be taught and learned when 
we consider the significance of the above statement. 
For elocution is nothing else but the art of speaking 
or talking, and our first studies and training in it 
commence in childhood. The child learns to form 
his first articulate sounds, and every step of his 
subsequent progress is taken, by means of the 
closest observation and imitation of that which he 
hears from the lips of his mother or nurse ; and he 
continues to be an infant, that is, he remains dumb, 
if he does not hear others speak. By repeated 
efforts to imitate the sounds he hears, with many 
failures, he slowly gains a partial control of the 
organs of speech, until he learns to express himself 
as they do who are his models and instructors, 
copying all their faults as accurately as their excel- 



20 Introduction. 

lences. There is indeed a certain characteristic grace 
in all the utterances of childhood, which will require 
hereafter to be explained. But the point to be 
emphasized here, is that all these are properly 
and essentially elocutionary studies and exercises, 
by which the child takes his first steps, and makes 
his first progress, in the art of speaking. Why 
should these exercises, or this progress, be ar- 
rested when he becomes a boy, or young man ? 
Under better instruction and better models than 
have been afforded by his mother or nurse, or other 
children with whom he has associated, why should 
he not correct the faults he has learned from them, 
and continue to make progress until he attains to 
the highest excellence in speaking ? For the pro- 
cess is the same ; and that is no sound instruction 
or training in elocution, which does not aim to de- 
velop in the student the same habits of close obser- 
vation and vocal imitation by which he learned to 
speak at first, and without which he would have re- 
mained forever dumb. 

§ 13. The phenomena of delivery admit of adequate analysis- 
presumed from its analogy to other arts, and proved from 
the fact that they have heen successfully analyzed— a 
complete analysis not necessary. 

1. It may he presumed that the 'phenomena of delivery 
admit of analysis from the analogy of elocution to other 
arts. 

The phenomena of the most eloquent delivery 
are hardly more complicated than those of poetry, 
music, painting or sculpture ; yet this objection is 



Utility of the Study of Elocution. 21 

not urged against instruction and training in these 
arts. The music of a full orchestra, e. g.. is a won- 
derfully complicated result ; yet it admits of a per- 
fect analysis, and even of exact notation, by the aid 
of which it can be communicated through instruc- 
tion, and reproduced in precisely the same form, 
and with similar effects, at pleasure. Why should 
it not be equally possible to analyze the phenomena 
of delivery, arid thereby to discover, so as accur- 
ately to describe and note what that is which makes 
one man's speaking so much better than another's, 
so that it may be recognized at sight, and repro- 
duced at pleasure ? 

2. These plienomena have been successfully analyzed. 

But we are not left to depend solely on the fore- 
going analogy. For that it is possible thus to ana- 
lyze, describe, and classify the excellences as well 
as the faults of elocution ; to explain the different 
varieties and shades of expression which give effect 
not only to common discourse, but also to the most 
impassioned eloquence — that it is possible to reduce 
the qualities of good speaking to the principles and 
laws upon which they depend, and to deduce from 
these laws a body of rules for the purpose of in- 
struction, training and practice in the art, precisely 
as in the case of musical notation and exercise — 
this work has been actually accomplished in great 
part by an American author, Dr. James Bush, in his 
profound and original treatise on the human voice ; 
in which we have already a truly philosophical 
foundation for the whole art of elocution. 



22 Introduction. 

3. A complete analysis is unnecessary. 

But if it were true that such a minute and ex- 
tended analysis as is required in music were impos- 
sible in elocution, it would not follow that this art 
cannot be taught nor learned. For such an analy- 
sis is not even desirable, except perhaps for the 
teacher, in whose hands even it is liable to very grave 
abuse. A too minute analysis, and a great multipli- 
cation of rules, as we shall see hereafter, is a 
very serious error in teaching elocution — an error 
which is the principal source of those vices of deliv- 
ery which are justly chargeable to study and train- 
ing in this art. All that can be made profitable to 
the practical student is a sound and broad analysis 
of the Sources of power in delivery — which has never 
before been attempted in any work on elocution — 
together with an exhibition of the principal Elements 
of power, that is, of the leading excellences to be 
cultivated, in contrast with the most common and 
glaring faults to be corrected. The attempt to go 
beyond this into very minute details, which is a 
general characteristic of previous works on this sub- 
ject, cannot fail to be attended with many bad re- 
sults. 

§ 14. The inherent difficulties of this art, arising from the 
numerous mental operations which must be carried on 
simultaneously, and many of them as sub-processes, are 
such that they cannot be overcome without study and 
practice. 

They who tell us that in order to speak well all 
we have to do is to speak naturally, do indeed 



Utility of the Study of Elocutiok. 23 

characterize by this expression the highest pos- 
sible attainment in elocution ; but they ignore all 
the facts of experience by assuming that to speak 
naturally is just the easiest thing in the world. 
They might as well inform us that in order to be- 
come great painters, or musicians, we have nothing 
to do but to paint naturally, or sing naturally, or 
play on the violin naturally. This precept, so -flip- 
pantly given, leaves out of view all the difficulties 
of the art ; some of which are the following. 

1. The number and variety of the mental operations 
which must be carried on simultaneously in all good 
speaking, are very great. 

(1.) Those of invention and style, or of memory, or 
of reading. .For according as we speak extempore, 
or memoriter, or from manuscript, we have either 
the processes of invention and style, with all the vast 
multitude of subordinate operations which these 
imply ; or those of remembering what we have com- 
mitted to memory ; or those of taking in from the 
manuscript ihrough the eye, the thoughts which we 
have to deliyer to others. 

(2.) We have to keep steadily in view the object 
which we aim to accomplish in the minds of the 
audience. 

(3.) We must haye a perception and feeling of 
the meaning of each word in itself, and in all its 
grammatical relations and connections, at the very 
moment of speaking it. 

(4.) We must ourselves be affected with the senti- 
ment. For it is indispensable to success in oratory 



24 Introduction. 

that our own hearts should be deeply and keenly 
affected with all the emotions and passions which 
we seek to enkindle in the hearts of others. 

(5.) We must hold the audience in our mental 
grasp, in the full and strong consciousness that we 
are speaking directly to their minds. 

All these mental operations, which will require to 
be fully unfolded hereafter in their relations to de- 
livery, together with a multitude of others, must be 
carried on simultaneously in all good speaking. Now 
it is simply preposterous to assume that this can be 
done by any one, without his ever having learned 
to do it. 

2. Many of these and other mental operations have 
to he carried on almost unconsciously, and suppressed 
entirely from tJw oral expression. 

This is the great difficulty which must be over- 
come in order to speak well, compared with which 
all others are as nothing. In order to understand 
it we must glance here at what will require to be 
more fully developed hereafter, namely, that all 
speaking, whether good or bad, expresses the lead- 
ing or predominant operations of the speaker's 
mind : and if those operations predominate which 
properly belong to the giving out or expression of 
thought, the speaking can hardly fail to be good : 
but if those which do not properly belong to such 
expression are predominant, the speaking will ex- 
press these, and cannot but prove an utter failure. 
The following examples will illustrate this state- 
ment. 



Utility of the Study of Elocution. 25 

(1.) The operations of memory must be suppressed. 
In speaking from memory, the whole intellect- 
ual process of remembering what is to be de- 
livered must be kept from manifesting itself; no 
sign of it can be allowed to appear in the vocal ex- 
pression. Hence this laborious operation, to- 
gether with all the anxieties attending it, must 
never become prominent in the consciousness of 
the speaker ; it must be carried on strictly as a sub- 
process : otherwise it will confuse those other men- 
tal operations which properly belong to the expres- 
sion of thought, and either mar or destroy the 
effect of the delivery. 

(2.) The operations of invention and style must be 
suppressed. In speaking extempore, all these labori- 
ous operations have to be carried on, for the most 
part, unconsciously ; otherwise the speaking will 
express them, and little else. 

(3.) The operations of reading must be suppressed. 
The case is similar in speaking from manuscript. 
All the mental operations of taking in the sense 
through the eye, which are in fact the reverse of 
those which belong to giving it out, must be carried 
on unconsciously ; for when they become the lead- 
ing operations, the speaking expresses them, and 
thus becomes the reverse of true expression. 

Here now we have the great difficulty to be over- 
come. It is that of carrying on all such mental 
operations strictly as sub-processes, and for the 
most part unconsciously, in order that they may 
not appear in the speaking ; together with that of 
keeping all the mental faculties intently engaged 



26 Introduction. 

in those operations which properly belong to the 
expression of thought, and to the work of impress- 
ing it npon others. This is the grand obstacle to 
excellence in speaking, which, if there were no 
others, would make instruction, training and prac- 
tice indispensable to success. 

§ 15. The objection from the grace and propriety of children 
is refuted by the considerations, that children do not 
speak well in the sense required by this objection, that 
they do not have to grapple with the difficulties of the 
art, and that the grace which they do manifest passes 
away with the simplicity of childhood. 

Nothing has tended more to disguise and conceal 
the preceding difficulties, and to cherish the idle 
notion that it is the easiest thing in the world to 
speak well, than the reference so frequently made 
to the natural grace and propriety with which 
children express themselves. Hence it has been 
rashly inferred, in the face of all experience, that 
they would continue to do so if they were left to 
themselves, and that all the awkwardness, man- 
nerism, affectation, and other faults, which they 
manifest as soon as they are put under methodical 
training, are due to this cause. We are now pre- 
pared to appreciate the force of this objection. 

1. Children do not spealc well in the sense luhich 
this objection requires. 

There is, indeed, a natural grace and beauty in al- 
most everything which children say and do ; but 
this appears, and is almost or quite as charming, 
in their defects and errors, as it is when they act 



Utility of the Study of Elocution. 27 

and speak correctly. Children speak as they hear ; 
and, as we have seen, they copy the faults of their 
models as accurately as they do their excellences. 
Few of them are so fortunate as to have perfect 
models in their nurses, or mothers, or other children 
with whom they associate. Hence they commonly 
articulate feebly and indistinctly. They make mis- 
takes in pronunciation and emphasis. They err in 
intonation and inflection, and in a thousand other 
particulars. These defects and errors in children's 
speaking are commonly such that if they were 
manifested in a public speaker, he could hardly be 
understood, and certainly would not be listened to. 
But because they are the mistakes of children, 
whom we do not expect to speak otherwise, and are 
accompanied by a certain infantine simplicity and 
grace, they either pass unnoticed, or perhaps are 
regarded as beauties. 

2. Children do not have to grapple with the real 
difficulties of the art. 

This explains in part the fact, in so far as it is 
one, that children do speak with a certain propri- 
ety and grace. For they do not have to express 
any of those subtle, extended and involved pro- 
cesses of thought, which belong to public speaking ; 
nor do they encounter those difficulties of predomi- 
nant and sub-processes, which have been described 
(§14 — 1, 2). This is equally true of grown persons in 
common conversation. In neither case do the 
speakers have to carry on as sub-processes, so that 
they shall not appear in the expression, any labori- 



28 Introduction. 

cms operations of invention and style, or of remem- 
bering, or of taking in the sense of a manuscript. 
Hence it is comparatively easy for them to speak 
without those peculiar faults which are so common 
in oratory. But as soon as any of these difficulties 
are encountered, whether in the exercises of the 
class-room, or in the actual attempt of untrained or 
inexperienced persons to address a public assembly, 
all these faults immediately appear ; nor can they 
in most cases be corrected otherwise than by sys- 
tematic instruction and practice. 

3. The grace of childhood in speaking as in other 
things naturally passes away. 

The principal reason why children are graceful 
in speaking, is one which shows us that this grace 
cannot continue ; that it is naturally evanescent. 
For it is the same thing that makes them graceful 
and charming in everything else, namely, their 
simplicity, or innocence, that ' sparkle of the purity 
of man's first estate.' Their self-consciousness and 
evil passions are yet undeveloped, and their life is 
one of almost pure spontaneity. ' The command- 
ment has not yet come to them, and they are still 
alive without the law ; but the commandment will 
come to them, and they will die under it.' The de- 
velopment of their self-consciousness and corrupt 
nature is inevitable ; and as this takes place it 
naturally manifests itself in constraint, awkwardness, 
mannerism, affectation, and other faults, not only 
in speaking, but also and equally in every other 
department of their life and conduct. They lose 



Utility of the Study of Elocution. 29 

their simplicity, and the grace of it, in everything 
else, as well as in speaking. In order to prevent as 
much as possible these sad consequences of the com- 
mon fall, to correct these natural departures from 
rectitude and propriety, we put them under instruc- 
tion in manners and morals, just as we do in speak- 
ing. Left to themselves, what would become of 
their morals, or manners ? As little can we expect 
from them in speaking, apart from that instruction 
and training which are as indispensable in the one 
case as in the other. 

§ 16. The objection drawn from natural eloquence is related 
by the considerations, that men without education have 
excelled in other arts, that in everything nature or 
genius holds the first place, that the so-called natural 
orators have risen to excellence by self-culture, and that 
the possession of superior endowuients is the strongest 
reason for cultivating them. 

1. Men without education have excelled in other voca- 
tions. 

The preceding views do not require us to deny 
the obvious fact that some men, without much pre- 
vious study or preparation, have attained to great 
excellence as public speakers. For this fact is no 
argument against the utility of the study of elocu- 
tion. Taken as such it proves too much. For in 
every other sphere of life, or vocation, persons are 
found who, without the advantages 'of a regular 
education, and with little special training or prac- 
tice, excel others who have been most highly edu- 
cated, and most carefully prepared for their special 
professions or pursuits. If this objection had any 



30 Introduction. 

force, it would be equally valid against all educa- 
tion, and against all study and methodical training 
for the professions, and other avocations and pur- 
suits. 

2. In everything nature or genius holds tJw first 
place — poeta nascitur. 

This principle is freely conceded, and it is one 
which is especially applicable to the liberal arts. 
For this is the true understanding of the above 
Latin proverb, which is of much wider import and 
application than is indicated by its form. It is in 
fact a highly condensed expression, involving that 
figure of speech in which a part is put for the 
whole. For here poet stands for artist. It signifies, 
therefore, that in order to attain to excellence in 
any liberal art, it is necessary to be born with a 
certain genius or aptitude for it. This applies of 
course to elocution. Hence the possession of such 
extraordinary endowments would be a sufficient 
explanation of that great power in delivery which 
has been attained by some persons without much 
previous study or preparation. For great genius 
is a great thing. It gives its possessor many advan- 
tages over other men, and enables him, with com- 
paratively little effort or labor, to achieve more than 
they can by the utmost diligence, and most stren- 
uous toil of a life-time. Such men may perhaps 
dispense with rules and regular training ; for it is 
the high prerogative of genius to be a law to itself, 
and to give laws to other less gifted souls. But 
all this surely is no argument against instruction 



Utility of the Study of Elocution. 31 

and training, even in such cases, much less in that 
of those who are less bountifully endowed. 

3. The so-called natural orators have risen to excel- 
lence by laborious self -culture — orator fit. 

We have in this proverb the same figure of 
speech as before ; for here orator also stands for 
artist. Hence the words signify that the artist 
becomes truly such, that is, he attains to the high- 
est excellence, only through much study and culture. 
This holds equally good in the case of the so-called 
natural orators, who, as we know from their bio- 
graphies, have always found much private study, 
and laborious self-culture, indispensable to compen- 
sate for the deficiencies of their early education. 
Of this we have many illustrious examples. Thus 
Patrick Henry, one of the most eloquent of unedu- 
cated orators, whilst yet a country shop-keeper, is 
known to have made, for several years, the art of 
speaking his daily and systematic study and prac- 
tice. Henry Clay also, whilst yet a youth employed 
upon a farm, laboriously cultivated his great natural 
gifts by committing to memory the finest passages 
of eloquence, and speaking them in the open air to 
imaginary audiences. To this practice he owed, in 
part, no doubt, that great strength, and matchless 
sweetness of voice, with which he charmed, for so 
many years, the Senate of the United States. 
Other distinguished examples might easily be given ; 
and a similar explanation, probably, of almost all the 
cases in which excellence in speaking has appeared 
to be the result of the uncultivated gifts of nature. 



32 Introduction. 

4. The possession of superior endowments or apti- 
tudes for any pur suit, is the strongest reason for culti- 
vating them. 

It is, indeed, surprising that intelligent men can 
be found, who are bold enough to advocate the no- 
tion that we ought to rely upon the gifts of nature 
alone for excellence in the art of speaking, whilst 
in every other pursuit of life the principle here 
stated is universally conceded. When, e. g. a youth 
manifests a strong natural bent, or genius, or apti- 
tude for engineering or machinery, medicine or law, 
this is never accepted as a reason why he should 
rely upon his superior natural endowment ; but it 
is always regarded as a strong reason why he 
should be put to the study and practice of that pur- 
suit for which nature has best adapted his faculties 
By this means we expect him to attain to excel- 
lence, and never without it. The argument surely 
ought to be equally valid where there is a superior 
genius for public speaking. 



§ 17. The vices of elocution often ascribed to study and 
training, are seldom legitimately due to tliis cause, but 
mostly to the inherent difficulties of the art, to false sys- 
tems of instruction, to the pendantry of the student, to 
inadequate training, and are corrected by thorough 
training. 

1. The cases in which the study of elocution has a 
had effect are comparatively rare. 

It may be conceded that there are some cases in 
which this study seems to have a permanently 
damaging effect upon the delivery; but these are 



Utility of the Study op Elocution. 33 

believed to be comparatively rare, and that it is 
their rarity which makes them so conspicuous as 
to give any plausibility to the objections which are 
drawn from this source. For whatever Archbishop 
Whately may have found to be true in England, 
with respect to the numbers who were "utterly 
spoiled," it is perfectly certain that in this country, 
as a general thing, our poorest speakers are those 
who have neglected, and our best speakers are 
those who have most laboriously availed themselves 
of the advantages of study, training and practice 
in this art. The truth is that the faults which are 
often ascribed to this, are mostly due to other 
causes, the principal of which require to be here 
enumerated and explained. 

2. These vices are due chiefly to tJie inherent diffi- 
culties of the art. 

Some of these difficulties have been already ex- 
hibited (§14 — 1, 2). They are first encountered 
when the student is put under training ; and 
hence it is erroneously inferred that the faults 
which then manifest themselves, are due to the 
training itself. But what proves that this is not 
so, is that these faults are sure to appear, all the 
same, in every unpracticed attempt to speak in 
public. Let any one who has never tried it under- 
take to address a public assembly, and he will soon 
discover how easy a thing it is to " speak naturally " 
and without these faults — faults which are really 
due to the inherent difficulties of the art. In order 
to correct them we have to resort to the same 



34 Introduction. 

means which are found to be indispensable in all 
other arts, namely, instruction, training and prac- 
tice. 

3. They are partly due to false systems of instruc- 
tion. 

In elocution, as in all other arts, false systems and 
wrong methods of instruction could not fail to come 
into vogue, nor to work more or less mischief. Ac- 
cordingly, in many of the books which treat of this 
subject, and which are now before the public, there 
is that very serious error which has been already 
indicated (§ 13 — 3), and which consists in a weari- 
some minuteness of detail, and multiplication of 
rules, to such an extent that it is hardly possible 
they should be remembered, much less that they 
should become inwrought into the mind of the stu- 
dent, so that the observance of them, should not 
even be a matter of consciousness. A single pro- 
fessor of commanding ability and high position, is 
known to have exerted in his day a wide-spread 
deleterious influence by means of such a depraved 
system, which he elaborated and taught. He cer- 
tainly did ' spoil ' a considerable number of very 
promising young men. The peculiar manner of his 
pupils made it easy to recognize them wherever 
they were heard. But all this, it must be remem- 
bered, is no less true of the other arts, and even of 
science and morals, than it is of elocution ; and 
if it were not, it could be no argument against 
sound instruction, and right methods of training 
and practice. 



Utility of the Study of Elocution. 35 

4. These faults are sometimes due to the incorrig- 
ible pendantry of the student. 

Some men are born poets, others are born ped- 
ants. Now pedantry consists in doing everything 
according to rule, irrespective of those innumerable 
circumstances which modify the application of rules. 
The genuine pedant can never forget his rules, even 
for a moment, nor act from the dictates of common 
sense, nor from the inspirations of genius. When 
such a man comes to the study of elocution, the 
rules of the art take full possession of his mind, to 
the exclusion of the object of speaking, the matter 
of discourse, and all those mental operations which 
properly belong to the expression of thought ; for 
which he might have had some place in his mind if 
he had never heard of the rules or precepts of the 
art. To such a person the systematic study of this, 
or of any other liberal art, can do little good. His 
genius, if such it can be called, is wholly mechan- 
ical; and the less he knows of such matters the 
better it will be for him. But all this again is evi- 
dently no argument against the study, by generous 
young men, of this liberal and beautiful art of public 
speaking. 

5. Tli&se faults are due in fine to inadequate train- 
ing. 

For such training not only leaves the natural 
faults of speaking uncorrected, but it often aggra- 
vates them. This result is necessarily incident to 
the incipient stages of the training period. But 
this also is equally applicable to all other arts and 



36 Introduction. 

pursuits. For whatever we are not accustomed to 
do embarrasses us when we begin it. If we have 
already made some irregular progress in the exer- 
cise of any art, systematic study and training, how- 
ever indispensable to the perfect mastery of it, will, 
at first, retard our progress. Thus, if a child has 
learned to read in some imperfect way, without 
dividing the words into syllables, such a division 
will, at first, greatly embarrass him. Syllabication, 
though confessedly useful to learners, will puzzle 
rather than aid those who have learned to read 
without it. In like manner, a person who has 
learned to " sing by ear," when he first begins to 
" sing by note," will not for awhile be able to sing 
as well as before. For whilst the precepts and 
rules of any art are new to the mind, and it re.quires 
a self-conscious effort to put them in practice, of 
course there can be no freedom nor power. But 
this is no more than to say that whilst a child is 
learning to read, it cannot read well — surely it 
would be very wonderful if it could. 

6. Thorough training corrects these faults — ars 
est celare artem. 

This is true in elocution, as in all other arts. 
Freedom and power, the highest blossoms and ripe 
fruit of art, are not attained until the prescribed 
rules, methods and processes are rendered perfectly 
familiar, inwrought, so to speak, into the very struc- 
ture of the mind, so that the observance of them is 
no longer a matter of consciousness or constraint. 
Thus art becomes a second nature ; or rather it 



Utility of the Study of Elocution. 37 

enables nature to manifest herself with her original 
freedom, purity and power. For evermore it is 
the true aim and last attainment of art, to bring us 
back to nature, from which we have wandered far 
away through ignorance and sin. Artificialness is 
the characteristic of defective art. Thus a person 
of good natural ear and voice, who sings without 
art, but with a certain grace and simplicity, and 
gives to the listeners a certain degree of pleasure, 
but who, when placed under instruction and train- 
ing, begins to manifest awkwardness and constraint, 
comes forth at last, when the work of art is per- 
fected, with the freedom and power of a Jenny Lind, 
to charm and bless the world. The tendency of 
systematic and thorough study and training is to 
the production of similar results in the wider and 
nobler sphere of eloquence. 

§ 18. Elocution has great educating power because it is a 
liberal art, and because it brings the student into the 
closest communion with great minds. 

A positive argument of great force for the utility 
of this study, is derived from its educating or 
developing power. This is certainly as great as 
that of any other branch of a liberal education. 
Indeed, for the development of personal power, 
elocution has the advantage, in certain respects, 
over most other studies. This statement, although 
contrary to the opinion of most educators, will be 
confirmed by those who have had any experience 
in teaching elocution, and who cannot fail to have 



38 Introduction. 

often observed a remarkable and rapid develop- 
ment in generous young men, when they apply 
themselves to its exercises. This seems to be due 
to the two following among other causes. 

1. As a liberal art, it calls forth a nobler exercise of 
the faculties than mere science. 

Almost everything in the common curriculum of 
a liberal education, except the arts of rhetoric and 
elocution, belongs to science. Now science termin- 
ates in mere knowing, whilst art applies knowledge 
to the production of what did not before exist ; 
that is to say, science is simply determinative, 
whilst art is creative. Art therefore is the crown 
of science, implying a nobler exercise of the facul- 
ties ; for as faith tuithout works is dead, so also is 
knowledge. Hence the exercise of a liberal art 
cannot fail to exert a stronger influence in the de- 
velopment of personal power, than any mere intel- 
lectual pursuit. 

2. It brings the student into the closest communion 
with great minds. 

In this study the student is required to store his 
memory with the finest passages of eloquence and 
poetry ; the influence of which in the culture of the 
esthetic, moral, and other faculties, is necessarily 
very great. But in order to render such passages 
with their proper effect, he must study to enter into 
their sentiments, to catch the spirit of their au- 
thors. By the strenuous exercise of his imagina- 
tion, intellect and sensibilities, he must learn to 
place himself in their circumstances, to possess 



Utility of the Study of Elocution. 39 

himself of their thoughts, to appreciate the force of 
their arguments, and to fill himself with the mag- 
nanimity and sublimity and pathos of their senti- 
ments ; — in a word, he must learn to think as they 
thought, and feel as they felt, at the very moment 
when they charmed or fired the hearts of great 
national assemblies, or poured forth those imperish- 
able strains which forever enchant the world. This 
is a fundamental principle in all sound elocutionary 
instruction and training. The student can do noth- 
ing in this art, except in the degree in which he 
learns to do this. In this way he comes into the 
most intimate communion with the great minds of 
the world ; he is ' made to drink into their spirit,' 
he nourishes himself with their power, and grows 
strong with their strength. There is no other 
study or exercise which produces the same effect in 
an equal degree. Even in the translation of the 
finest passages of the ancient classics, the student 
cannot so fully enter into the spirit of his author. 
For if, in rendering a strain of eloquence from 
Demosthenes or Cicero, he should come to feel as 
the orator felt whilst delivering it, he would be 
prompted to speak it as the orator spoke it, instead 
of merely reading it ; and the least approach to 
such a delivery in the translations of the class 
room, would assuredly bring down the house ! 



40 Introduction. 

§ 19. The final argument for the utility of this study is derived 
from the example and authority of the great masters of 
eloquence. 

If all other arguments for the utility of the study 
of elocution should fail, the example and authority 
of the great masters and teachers of eloquence 
ought alone to be conclusive. 

1. In modem times we know that the most eloquent 
speakers have commonly been the most diligent in 
the study and practice of this art (§ 16 — 3). 

2. The ancient teachers carried their pupils through 
such a protracted and laborious course of exercises 
in elocution as appears to us at this day almost 
incredible (§ 97—3). 

3. Demosthenes was a proverb for the rigor of his 
elocutionary exercises. In order to strengthen his 
naturally feeble voice and articulation, he accus- 
tomed himself to declaim with pebbles in his mouth, 
whilst walking rapidly up hill, and on the sea-shore 
to sound of the breaking waves. Thus he developed 
that clearness of articulation, and strength of voice, 
which enabled him to subdue into silence and awe 
those tumultuous assemblies of the Athenian 
democracy, where the noise and confusion were often 
like that " on the lip of the many-sounding sea." 

4. Cicero tells us that after he had commenced to 
speak in public, he found his voice and delivery so 
inadequate that he gave up his profession for a 
time, left Rome, and spent several years abroad in 
the study of elocution, under the greatest masters 



Utility of the Study of Elocution. 41 

of the art in Greece and Asia Minor. He returned 
to Kome and resumed his profession, with a voice 
which became proverbial for its sweetness, compass 
and power, and with a delivery which charmed that 
most eloquent age in the history of the world. Now 
such examples are an authority for which no coun- 
terpoise is possible. For these men must be pre- 
sumed to have known what they were about — 
whether study and training in the art of which they 
were the greatest masters, were profitable or not. 

5. Conclusion of the argument in the words of Quin- 
tilian and Cicero. 

Hence we may fitly conclude this whole argu- 
ment in the modest words of the great Quintilian : 
I Let those who think it is enough to be born, in 
order to become great orators, enjoy their opinion ; 
but let them be indulgent at the same time to the 
pains I take [to form the orator], who believe that 
there can be no consummate excellence except where 
nature is aided by art ;" or in the yet more forcible 
words of Cicero : " To say that there is no art in 
the greatest things, when not even the least can be 
done without art, appears to be the part of those 
who speak inconsiderately, and who err in the 
gravest matters." 



PART I 



THE SOURCES OF POWER IN DELIVERY. 



I. — POWEE IN THE THOUGHT. 

II. — Feeling. 

III. — Earnestness. 

IV. — Consciousness of Direct Address to the Au- 
dience. 

V. — Attention and Sympathy. 

VI. — Mastery of the Subject. 

VII. — Facility of Kemembering. 

VIII. — Familiarity with the Manuscript. 

IX. — Vitality, Favorable Moods and Physical Ke- 
gimen. 

X. — Self-Control. 



PART I. 



CHAPTEE I. 

PREIIMINAKY OBSERVATIONS AND FUNDAMENTAL 
PRINCIPLES. 

§ 20. The object for which the sources of power are here in- 
cluded in the art of elocution, is to couuteract the ten- 
deucy to an artificial style of speaking", otherwise incident 
to the study, and to stimulate, quicken and develop 
the faculty of oral discourse. 

The works on this art which are now before 
the public, confine themselves mostly or exclusively 
to the treatment of the Elements of power in deliv- 
ery. The tendency of this, to a certain extent, has 
been to divorce the study, training and exercises 
which Elocution prescribes, from the sentiments 
which it is intended to express ; in other words, to 
sunder that organic and vital union, which subsists 
between delivery and those intellectual, moral and 
esthetic states and workings of the speaker's mind, 
from which it derives its inspiration and its power. 
The result of this has been such an artificial style 
of speaking as to render colorable, though by no 



46 The Sources of Poweb. 

means to justify, the objections against this art 
which have been already discussed (§ 10). In order to 
counteract this tendency, to obviate these objections^ 
and to stimulate, quicken and develop the faculty of 
oral speaking, as well as for the sake of systematic 
completeness in the treatment of the subject, it is 
now proposed to consider, in some detail, the prin- 
cipal Sources of power in delivery. From this exhi- 
bition it is hoped that their fundamental importance 
will be made to appear, together with the grave 
deficiencies of every system in which they are 
omitted, or which fails to treat them in their vital 
relations to elocutionary power. 

§ 21. The most fundamental principle of the art of delivery is 
that speaking normally consists of the expression of the 
leading, or dominant states of the speaker's mind, to com- 
municate which to the audience is all that he can legiti- 
mately aim or hope to do. 

This principle is essential alike to the understand- 
ing of the subject, and to success in all the train- 
ing, exercises and practice of the art. It has, in- 
deed, the appearance of being very far from the 
truth ; yet, in the sense in which it is here intended, 
with no reference, of course, to voluntary efforts at 
the disguise or concealment of one's sentiments, 
which efforts, however, are hardly ever more than 
partially successful, it is unquestionable. 

1. Tlue connection between thought and language is so 
vital that it is almost impossible to divorce them. 

Such is the vital connection between the mental 
states, on the one hand, and the organs of speech, 



Obseevations and Pkinciples. 47 

tones, and all the vocal utterances, on the other, 
that it is next to impossible, whatever be the lexico- 
graphical meaning of the words we employ, to 
speak otherwise than as we really feel. For all the 
outward signs, both of voice and gesture, which go 
to constitute delivery, take their form and character 
from the mental operations, both intellectual and 
emotional, with which the speaker, at the moment of 
speaking, is immediately and chiefly occupied. It 
is only those operations which are secondary and 
subordinate that can be suppressed from the ex- 
pression. Those which predominate in, and govern 
the consciousness, it is well nigh impossible to 
suppress. These he so near, and are so imme- 
diately the causes of the oral and visible signs by 
and through which we express ourselves, that 
almost of necessity they come forth, and manifest 
themselves in their true character. 

2. Examples. 

In illustration and confirmation of this principle 
it may sufnce to adduce the following examples. 

(1.) The mental recognition of the emphatic mean- 
ing of a word, prompts to giving it vocal emphasis. 
A speaker who thinks of the meaning, and feels the 
power of an emphatic word, at the very moment of 
speaking it, can hardly fail to emphasize it aright ; 
and if he does not think of its meaning, nor feel its 
power, he certainly will not emphasize it at all. 

(2.) Doubt or uncertainty expresses itself in rising 
inflections. He whose mental state is characterized 
by either of these words, will spontaneously express 
it by a raised pitch, and upward inflections, on his 



48 The Soueces of Power. 

most significant words ; whilst the feeling of cer- 
tainty or confidence will affirm and manifest itself 
by downward or falling inflections. 

(3.) Earnestness will make the impression of earn- 
estness. Whoever is in downright blood earnest, will 
be sure to express it, and to impress it upon his audi- 
ence ; whereas he who only affects it, may rant and 
rave, and " tear a passion to tatters," but he will not 
succeed in expressing what he does not feel, but 
only feigns. 



§ 22. The leading mental states or operations in all good 
speaking are the following : that of holding firmly in the 
mental grasp the object which the speaker aims to accom- 
plish in the minds of the audience ; the desire to accom- 
plish it; the consciousness of speaking directly to the 
audience for this purpose; and the feeling of the power 
of the thoughts and emotions which he aims to express. 

The development and application of the principle 
laid down above ( § 21), would require us to investi- 
gate and determine what these leading states or 
operations of mind are, the expression of which 
constitutes good delivery ; in other words, which 
belong essentially to the giving out or expression 
of thought, and to impressing it upon other minds. 
These, in their most general forms, we should find 
to be as here enumerated, corresponding in part to 
the Sources of power in delivery. They govern the 
consciousness of the speaker, and consequently give 
character and form both to the oral and visible 
signs by which he expresses himself. In fact when 
these mental states predominate in his conscious- 



Observations and Peinciples. 49 

ness they express themselves, and the expression of 
them is the highest excellence of speaking. 

§ 23. All other mental operations which accompany speaking, 
are properly sub-processes, and require to be suppressed. 

These are the exercise of memory, the work of 
invention, arrangement and style, or reading from 
the manuscript, the study of'the audience, the exer- 
cise of self-control, the feelings of timidity, anxiety 
and fear, and similar exercises of the mind. These, 
in all good delivery, are carried on or operate, for 
the most part, unconsciously, and are suppressed 
from the expression. For whenever they are al- 
lowed to become predominant in the consciousness, 
they displace or confuse those which properly be- 
long to the expression of thought, give character 
and form to all the signs employed, and produce all 
the vices of elocution. The delivery, in fact, con- 
sists of the expression of these properly sub-pro- 
cesses, but which have now become the leading or 
governing states of the speaker's mind. 



§ 24. The great problem of delivery is, how shall the speaker 
think and feel, at the moment of speaking, just what he 
wishes to express 1 

From the preceding views it is plain that the 
great problem which elocution is required to solve, 
but which has hitherto been excluded from the art, 
is really a mental one, as here stated. The solution 
of this problem is the precise aim of the following 
discussion of the Sources of power in delivery. 



CHAPTEB II 

POWER IN THE THOUGHT. 

§ 25. The tendency of power in the thought is to inspire the 
delivery with power. 

As in order to speak at all, it is necessary to have 
something to say, so in order to speak well, it is 
necessary to have something to say which is worthy 
of being spoken. This statement, however, requires 
to be qualified. For it is obvious that the delivery 
may be much better than the matter of discourse ; 
just as a good discourse may be utterly spoiled in 
the delivery. If this were not so, there could be no 
place for Elocution, as a distinct art from Bhetoric. 
All that is here meant is that the strong tendency 
of power in the thought is to inspire the delivery 
with power, and that the best possible elocution is 
otherwise unattainable. In proof of this, it might 
be sufficient to adduce the fact, well known to all 
teachers and students of this art, that, for purposes 
of practical training and exercise, we find a very 
great advantage in the selection of the most elo- 
quent passages from the orators and poets. But it 
is desirable to unfold and confirm this principle by 
other considerations. 



Power in the Thought. 51 

§ 26. There is a natural congruity between the thought and 
the expression of it. 

This natural agreement, congruity, or consistency 
between the character of the thought to be ex- 
pressed, and the expression which appropriately be- 
longs to it, is essential to the possibility of oral 
speech. There is such a congruity also between 
the thought and its rhetorical form, the unspoken 
words, or diction ; but it is much more striking be- 
tween the thought and its vocalization, or delivery 
by the voice. Hence animated thoughts agree with 
an animated delivery ; feeble and spiritless thoughts 
agree with a feeble and spiritless delivery; and a 
truly powerful delivery is inconsistent with thoughts 
which have no power in themselves* But inconsis- 
tencies and incongruities are difficult to be realized 
in one and the same act, such as that of public 
speaking ; whilst things which agree and are consist- 
ent with each other are comparatively easy to be re- 
alized. Hence good elocution, when we have good 
thoughts to express, is comparatively an easy thing ; 
but it is extremely difficult when our thoughts are 
poor and barren and feeble. This congruity, also, 
between good thoughts and good speaking, materi- 
ally aids the effect of both upon the audience. 



§ 27. Thought exerts a powerful influence to determine its 
own forms of expression. 

1. Thought and expression mutually influence each 
other, but the influence of thought is 'predominant. 



52 The Sources of Power. 

There is a vital connection between thought and 
expression, both in its rhetorical and oral forms. 
But especially does the thought to be expressed, 
and the articulated and oral expression of it, consti- 
tute one organic whole; the different members of 
which exert a moulding influence reciprocally 
upon each other. But the influence of thought 
upon expression is predominant, that of expression 
upon thought, subordinate. For we do not speak 
until we have some thought to express, which guides 
us in the selection and oral formation of the words 
which it requires. Thought is the spirit and life 
of which expression is the organized body ; and it 
is ever the peculiar form of life which determines 
the character of the organism in and through 
which it shall be manifested. Human life does not 
and cannot manifest itself in a brute form. 

2. Examples. 

The following examples may serve to exhibit this 
vital connection between thought and expression, 
and the manner in which that which is symbolized 
determines the symbolization. 

(1.) Dull, sluggish and confused thoughts nat- 
urally tend to express themselves in heavy, slug- 
gish and confused elocution ; whilst elevated, im- 
passioned and powerful thoughts prompt and in- 
spire an elevated, impassioned and powerful deliv- 
ery. 

(2.) Clear and articulate thinking naturally ex- 
presses itself in clear and articulate speaking; 
whilst blurred and inarticulate thinking can hardly 
express itself otherwise than in blurred and indis- 



Power in the Thought. 53 

tinct articulation. In fact, the character of the 
thinking, in this respect, exerts a marked influence 
upon the physical organs of speech, upon their size, 
shape and physiological conditions. For a more 
full elucidation of this point, see under the head of 
articulation, § 122 — 1. 



§ 28. Power in tlie thought gires that rational confidence to 
the speaker which is essential to power in delivery. 

1. In order to deliver a discourse with power, tJw 
speaker must believe that there is poiver in it. 

The importance to the speaker of a rational con- 
fidence in himself, and in what he has to say, is 
such that it might well be treated as an independent 
and original source of power. Whoever has com- 
pared his own delivery when inspired with such 
confidence, with what it becomes when he is con- 
scious of having none but feeble thoughts to express, 
will be at no loss to appreciate the truth and force 
of this statement. Clergymen have abundant ex- 
perience of it, in the fact that they find it almost 
impossible to preach old sermons with anything 
like the freshness and power of a first delivery. 
This is especially the case when the preacher him- 
self has made any considerable mental progress in 
the meantime, unless the discourse has been care- 
fully worked over, and brought up, in matter and 
form, to his advanced stage of development and 
culture. 

(1.) Such confidence purifies and elevates the de- 
livery, and communicates itself to the audience. 



54 The Sources of Power. 

For when the speaker fully believes that his 
thought is good, and ought to have weight with the 
audience, this conviction releases him from the 
anxiety and torment of fear lest he should fail, or 
make a fool of himself, and thus tends to purify his 
elocution from the vices with which the expression 
of these feelings must otherwise load and enfeeble 
it. Unaffected therefore by this cause of embarrass- 
ment and distraction, he is free to throw all his 
faculties and energies into the proper work of deliv- 
ery ; and he is inspired with courage and hope, 
which naturally impart fullness and depth to his 
tones, breadth and significance to his inflections, 
clearness to his articulation, propriety and force to 
his emphasis, and dignity and grace to his gestures 
and manner. This confidence also enables him to 
expect, and by expecting to engage the attention and 
sympathy of his audience, by which his elocution 
is still further elevated and purified. Besides this, 
his own appreciation of what he has to say tends to 
communicate itself to them by all the secret chan- 
nels of sympathy, so that they are insensibly led to 
receive it with a like appreciation. But all this is 
power in delivery. 

(2.) The want of such confidence has the opposite in- 
fluence. It renders it almost impossible for the audi- 
ence to feel any confidence in what is said, even though 
it be composed of the most eloquent sentiments 
that oratory or poetry ever produced. For if the 
speaker himself does not think it worthy of being 
spoken, how can he deliver it so as to impress them 



Poweb w the Thought. 55 

with the feeling that it is worthy of being heard ? 
In spite of himself, in every tone and inflection of 
his voice, in his articulation, emphasis and gesture, 
he cannot fail to reveal, express, and impress upon 
the audience, his own leading state of mind, which 
in this case is that of condemnation of what he is 
delivering ; and thus he leads them to condemn it. 
Add to this the torment of anxiety and fear, or 
rather the conviction that he is making a fool of 
himself ; the consequent withdrawing of his faculties 
from the proper work of delivery ; and all the 
vices of elocution which the inevitable expression of 
such a state of mind implies, render it simply im- 
possible to speak with any power. His conscious 
feebleness of thought makes him feeble in de- 
livery. 

2. In order to fed such confidence the speaker must 
have a discourse which is worthy of it. 

This is the surest way, although the statement 
must not be understood to imply that none but 
speakers of superior powers of thought can attain 
to excellence in this art ; nor that it will always suc- 
ceed in producing the necessary confidence. For 
there are two classes of persons to whom the rule 
in its utmost rigor does not apply. 

(1.) Those who are incapable of severe crit- 
icism upon their discourses may feel confidence 
in them, though unworthy of it. A speaker 
of inferior literary or rhetorical ability may feel 
great confidence in an inferior discourse, and 
consequently may deliver it so that it will pro- 



56 Power in the Thought. 

duce an effect upon the audience far beyond its real 
merits. In such persons the critical faculties are 
not commonly developed beyond those which are 
employed in the actual production of their dis- 
courses ; hence, although they are not able to orig- 
inate thoughts of any great power, yet, because they 
are also incapable of any high degree of self-criti- 
cism, they often feel a good degree of confidence in 
what they have to say, and consequently are enabled 
to deliver it with good effect. But even in such 
cases;it is indispensable that the thought should be 
as good as the speaker can make it ; that he him- 
self should not be capable of criticising it too severe- 
ly ; otherwise, however poor it may be, it cannot fail 
to be still further marred in the delivery. 

(2.) Those whose critical faculties are developed 
in excess will hardly feel confidence, however ex- 
cellent their discourses. The peculiarity of such 
persons is that their critical faculties are de- 
veloped so far in advance of those upon which 
execution or production depends, that they are 
disgusted with everything they do ; and the 
more they labor upon their own thoughts, the 
more they are discouraged. They are over ed- 
ucated, having had too much theoretical instruction 
or study, and too little practice ; so that their ener- 
gy in production has become enfeebled or paralyzed. 
They are found in every sphere of art and of life. 
Of this class the character of Hamlet is an illustri- 
ous type, in which 

The native hue of resolution 
Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought. 



Power in the Thought. 57 

(3.) The rule is of general application to all of 
well-balanced minds. 

With most of us, however, and with all of any thing- 
like evenly balanced minds and culture, it will be 
found that the only sure way to nourish and main- 
tain a steady confidence in the matter of our dis- 
courses, such as is indispensable to the successful 
delivery of them, is to make them as perfect as pos- 
sible. In this way only is it possible to secure the 
highest degree of power in delivery. Without this 
no speaker, however gifted or accomplished in ex- 
tempore discourse, ought ever to deliver himself on 
any serious occasion, except from absolute necessi- 
ty. The reasons for this which Elocution alone 
supplies, to say nothing of Ehetoric, are altogether 
insuperable. 



CHAPTEE III. 

FEELING. 

§29. The emotions and passions of the soul are the true in- 
spiration of eloquence. 

Si vis me flere, dolendum est 
Primum ipse tibi. 

There is no more fruitful source of power in de- 
livery than the emotions and passions of the soul. 
These are the true inspiration of eloquence itself, 
as also of poetry, music, painting, sculpture, and all 
the esthetic arts. This fundamental principle has 
been expressed, once for all time, in the well known 
lines of Horace, of which the following is a very in- 
adequate translation. 

Responsively the human features laugh 

To those that laugh, and weep to those that weep. 

Would'st make me weep ? Then thou thyself must grieve, 

Telephus, or Peleus ; thy words of woe 

Then touch my soul : but if thy mandates fail 

In aught becoming thy true character, 

I laugh, or sleep. Sad features speak sad thoughts ; 

The frown, of wrath ; sweet smiles, of sport and joy ; 

A serious face bespeaks a serious mind. 

For nature forms us first within to feel 

The changeful lot of life — thrills with delight, 

Impels to anger, weighs us down with grief, 



Feeling. 59 



And chokes us with keen anguish — then declares, 
With voice conformed, her great interpreter, 
The changing passions of the fervid soul. 



§ 30. The passions have their own peculiar language of my s- 
tical signs. 

In the preceding quotation from one of the great- 
est masters of art, we haye set forth, not only the 
indispensable necessity of feeling in order to power 
in elocution, but also the great reason for this ne- 
cessity ; namely, because the passions have their 
own peculiar language of mystical signs. 

1. These signs consist of all the different qualities 
of voice, changes of pitch, inflection, articulation, time, 
force, and emphasis, together with all the infinitely va- 
rious expressions of the countenance, and all the 'posi- 
tions and motions of the body. 

In fact, each several passion, mode of feeling, and 
state of mind, has its own peculiar dialect, so to 
speak, of this symbolical language. For these signs, 
whether addressed to the ear or the eye, are very 
different, not only for the different passions, but also 
for their ever-varying degrees of intensity, and for 
all their modifications and blendings with each oth- 
er ; and they vary still further in persons of differ- 
ent temperaments, culture and circumstances. This 
language, therefore, constitutes a most copious., sig- 
nificant and expressive part of delivery. For it is 
by means of it that the emotions and passions of 
the soul communicate themselves from one person 
to another, along with the intellectual operations, 



60 The Sources of Power. 

indeed, but often independently, and without the in- 
tervention of thought. 

2. Examples. 

The following examples, somewhat modified, are 
taken from an anonymous work of the last century, 
referred to by Walker in his Elocution, and follow- 
ing which he has given us between seventy and 
eighty similar examples of this mystical language 
of the passions. The signs here imperfectly indi- 
cated are only a few out of an almost infinite varie- 
ty, by which these passions, in their innumerable 
degrees and modifications and blendings with other 
feelings, may be manifested. 

(1.) The passion of anger expresses itself in some 
persons by a flush, in others by a livid paleness of 
the countenance. It wrinkles the forehead, and con- 
tracts the eyebrows. It flashes with a fierce light in 
the eyes, expands the nostrils, gives rigidity to the 
muscles, clinches the fists, stamps the foot, and vio- 
lently agitates the whole body. Its words are some- 
times rapid, noisy and harsh, with the voice pitched 
high ; sometimes the voice is on the lowest key, the 
words slow, and the articulation much hardened. 
Violent and vindictive passion will often force out 
the breath, imperfectly vocalized, in a sharp hissing 
sound. The first Napoleon, it is said, when very 
angry, hissed out his words so as to be nearly unin- 
telligible. 

(2.) The passion of sorrow, when not excessive, ren- 
ders the countenance pale and dejected, with the eyes 
cast down, and suffused with tears. The arms hang 



Feeling. 61 

loosely at the sides, the hands are open, the fingers 
spread, and all the muscles of the body are relaxed. 
The voice is low and plaintive, the words slow, and 
frequently interrupted with sobs and sighs. When 
the passion is violent, it distorts the countenance, 
as if with pain, wrings the hands, beats the breast, 
tears the hair, and sometimes throws the body at full 
length on the ground ; often it raises the voice in 
loud complainings, even to shrieks and screams. 
Overwhelming sorrow is still and silent : it sup- 
presses the tears and the voice, and renders the 
countenance dull and heavy, as if all the faculties 
were stupefied. 

(3.) The passion of love, in different degrees of ti- 
midity, expresses itself by approaching or shrinking 
from its object. When in doubt of the reception it 
shall meet with, its approaches are made with much 
hesitation, confusion of manner, and sometimes trem- 
bling. Blushing and paleness succeed each other 
in the countenance. The voice is low and soft' and 
tremulous. The articulation is broken and confused, 
according to the strength of the passion, and the 
lack of self-control. When declaring itself, or plead- 
ing with great importunity, it may easily bring the 
lover to his knees. The eyes are now either turned 
away, or fixed upon the object, and the speech is 
either rapid and voluble, or confused and broken. 
When secure of its object, it gives a smile to the 
lips, a serene glow to the countenance which seems 
to radiate light, a liquid brilliancy to the eyes, and 
a tenderness of expression and grace to all the mo- 
tions of the body. 



62 The Soueces of Powek. 

§ 31. No art can teach this language without the feelings by 
which it is inspired ; yet the study of its signs is legiti- 
mate and useful. 

1. Feeling bears a relation to the knowledge of these 
signs like that of the ear to sounds, and of the eye to 
colors. 

The preceding examples — a very few of the signs 
by which two or three of the most common passions 
are manifested— may serve to evince, not only that 
there is such a language, but also that it is copious 
and complicated beyond any possibility of analysis, 
and almost of conception. For this reason among 
others, it can never be taught or learned so that it 
can be employed with its proper effect, except as it 
is inspired by the passions themselves of which it 
is the medium of expression. In a peculiar sense, 
it is the language of nature, and nature only can 
teach it. All that we can ever know of it, for prac- 
tical use, by mere study, is little more than the deaf 
can know of sounds, or the blind of light and colors. 

2. The study of these signs, however, aids the speaker 
to express the passions which he actually feels. 

The above statements are not intended to affirm 
that the knowledge of these signs, in so far as this 
may be acquired by observation, study and experi- 
ence, has no legitimate place or use in elocution ; or 
that it cannot aid the speaker in expressing the 
passions by which he is actually inspired. For it 
is evident from the preceding examples, that, to a 
certain extent, these signs are capable of being dis- 
tinguished, described, classified, and referred to the 



Feeling. 63 

different emotions and passions of which they are 
the natural expression. Such a knowledge of them 
is an important element of that aid in delivery 
which art affords to nature ; and hence it ought not 
to be neglected by any who aspire to the highest 
excellence and power. For when the speaker is 
truly inspired by the feelings which he aims to ex- 
press, and to excite in the audience, he will be great- 
ly aided by a competent knowledge of this symbol- 
ical language. Feeling is thus rendered a more 
abundant source of power. For as the speaker is 
himself excited by the tones of his own voice, so 
this whole language of passion tends to excite in 
his bosom, and to facilitate in expression, the pas- 
sions he wishes to communicate. In a word, the 
knowledge of these signs is of great value in that 
sphere in which art comes in to aid, but does not 
subvert or displace nature. 

§ 32. Feeling is indispensable in impassioned, argumentative, 
explanatory, and every species of discourse. 

The actual delivery of thought, taken in the most 
comprehensive sense of the word, as inclusive of all 
the emotions and passions, implies that we are first 
in possession of it ourselves ; for a man cannot de- 
liver to others what he does not himself possess. 
Hence the feeling of the power of the thought, is in- 
dispensable to the delivery of it with power, in every 
species of discourse. 

1. Feeling is most indispensable in impassioned dis- 
course. 

The preceding views with respect to the mystical 



64 The Sources of Power. 

language of the passions, have their principal bear- 
ing, of course, upon the impassioned discourse of 
excitation and persuasion. But the indispensa- 
ble necessity of feeling in this, the highest sphere 
of eloquence, may be still further evinced. For 
how, it may asked, is it conceivable that a man 
who does not love justice, and abhor crime, should 
speak in defence of the one, or in condemnation of 
the other, without such feigning as must betray 
itself, and mock his attempts at power in delivery ? 
Is it possible that any one should give such true 
and effective and powerful expression to the love of 
the truth, the right, the beautiful, and the good, as to 
excite these emotions in the hearts of others, when 
he does not feel them himself? How can a man so 
speak as to kindle up in others the love of God, and 
of their neighbors, when he himself loves neither his 
neighbor nor his God ? All this evidently involves 
a problem which no art can, or ought even to attempt 
to solve. For no feigning can ever produce the ef- 
fect of unfeigned emotion ; and without feeling true 
art itself is impossible. 

2. It is also necessary in argumentative and explan- 
atory discourse. 

Feeling, taken in a somewhat wide sense, is also 
necessary in both these species of discourse. For 
it is indispensable that the speaker should be deep- 
ly sensible of the meaning and bearing of the 
thoughts which he has to express, that he should 
himself feel the force of the arguments which he 
aims to enforce upon others, in order to deliver 



Feeling. 65 

them with their proper effect. Both in argument 
and explanation, he must grasp in his mind the 
thought as a whole, and in its several parts, and 
must be sensible of the meaning and force or 
power of every important word, not only in it- 
self, but also in its various relations and connec- 
tions, at the very moment of speaking it. It would 
be difficult to lay too much stress upon this point. 
For it is here that men of great talents often mis- 
erably fail: that is, from the bare fact that they 
have no feeling of the meaning and power of their 
words, at the moment they are spoken. Hence 
their feeble articulation, meaningless or false tones 
and inflections, misplaced emphasis, and mechani- 
cal gestures. 

3. In every species of discourse, the influence of the 
appropriate feeling is to clothe the delivery with 
'power. 

It is impossible for a person of a dull, heavy, or 
sluggish soul to speak well. The true orator is a 
man of keen and deep sensibility ; he is all alive, 
even to his finger nails. It is this which gives him 
that charming animation or vivacity, which enables 
him always to command the attention and sympathy 
of his audience, and which is almost irresistible. It 
is this which inspires the tones, inflections, articu- 
lation, emphasis and gesture, so that it seems to be 
the feeling itself which speaks, rather than the man. 
It flashes in the eye, it plays upon the countenance, 
so that the features seem to talk as expressively as 
the lips. It pours itself into the audience by the 



66 The Soukces of Power. 

mysterious channels of sympathy, and kindles in 
their hearts all the passions which glow in the speak- 
er's own bosom. 

§ 33. Play actors produce their great effects by genuine 
feeling. 

1. The successful tragedian is affected as the person 
ivhom he personates. 

It may occur as an objection to these views, that 
play actors produce the very greatest effects by their 
fictitious representations. But. it is a mistake to 
suppose that they produce them by simulated, or 
feigned emotions ; for the genuineness of stage feeling 
does not admit of being questioned. The actor, in 
in order to succeed in his art, must learn the secret 
of opening the fountains of feeling in his own bosom. 
He must himself be moved as if he were in truth the 
person whose character he personates ; and in his 
most successful efforts he sometimes loses, for the 
time, his consciousness of his own proper identity. 
His emotion becomes so profound and entrancing 
that his distinct personality seems to be absorbed in 
the character which he represents. This is the 
•great secret of the tragic art, which has given the 
great tragedians their almost irresistible power over 
the emotions and passions of the human soul. 



2. Examples and authorit 

It would be easy to cite any number of examples 
and authorities in support of this statement, if it 
were necessary. 



Feeling. 67 

(1.) Walter gives among others the following : " I 
have often seen Powell, in the character of George 
Barnwell, so overwhelmed with grief in that pathetic 
address, 

Be warned, ye youths, who see my sad despair, 

as to be incapable of expressing himself in the most 
impressive manner." (For the necessity of self-con- 
trol, see Chap. XI.) 

(2.) Quintilian tell us : "I have often seen actors, 
both in tragedy and comedy, when they laid aside 
their masks, after going through some distressing 
scene, quit the stage in tears." 

(3.) Cicero also to the same effect, particularly 
where, after having quoted a passage from the Tela- 
mon of Pacuvius, he adds : " Even the player who 
pronounced these words every day, could not deliver 
them effectively without a feeling of real grief." 

3. In genuine feeling the flayers not unfrequently 
shame the preachers. 

For, as it has been often remarked, whilst the 
former deliver fiction as if it were the truth, the 
latter not unfrequently utter the most solemn and 
glorious truth as if it were the merest fiction. Such 
preachers, if this word be not abused, ought surely 
to apply to themselves those terrible self-reproaches 
of Hamlet, which afford us another striking evidence 
of the genuineness of histrionic feeling. 

O what a rogue and peasant slave am I ! 
Is it not monstrous that this player here, 
But in a fiction, in a dream of passion, 



68 The Sources of Power. 

Could force his soul so to his own conceit, 

That from her working all his visage wanned , 

Tears in his eyes, distraction in's aspect, 

A broken voice, and his whole function suiting 

"With forms to his conceit — and all for nothing ? 

For Hecuba ! 

What's Hecuba to him, or he to Hecuba, 

That he should weep for her ? What would he do, 

Had he the motive and the cue for passion 

That I have ? 

Yet I, 
A dull and muddy-mettled rascal, peake, 
Like John-a-dreams,unpregnant of my cause, 
And can say nothing. 



§ 34. The speaker should endeavor to excite In himself the 
feeling which is requisite for speaking, for which there 
are various and effective means. 

It is evident from what has now been determined, 
that great importance must attach to the question, 
by what means can we command the requisite feel- 
ing on each occasion of speaking ? That there are 
such means has always been understood by the 
play actors, and the knowledge and diligent use of 
some of them go far to explain the great power of 
the tragic art. But a large number of public speak- 
ers seem either to be ignorant that there are such 
aids, or to despise them. It is doubtless one cause 
of the feebleness of pulpit delivery, that so many 
clergymen neglect the invaluable helps which art 
supplies, in exciting their own hearts with the feel- 
ing of the truth which they seek to impress upon 
others. This remark is not intended to apply to 
all the aids mentioned below, some of which, in- 



Feeling. 69 

deed, are so general in their nature, and have so 
much more exalted relations than any which they 
bear to this subject, that it seems almost improper 
to bring them within the purview of this art. 



§ 35. The first means of exciting the requisite feeling, is 
careful meditation on the causes and reasons for feeling 
which are offered bj the occasion, object, and sentiments 
of the discourse. 

The first and most generally available means, 
which our art teaches, of exciting in ourselves the 
requisite feeling, is thorough meditation beforehand 
upon the causes or reasons for feeling, which are 
supplied by the occasion and circumstances, the ob- 
ject which we aim to accomplish, and the sentiments 
we have to deliver. Each of these seems to require 
a separate consideration. 



§ 36. Meditation of the occasion and circumstances of speak- 
ing tends to excite the requisite feeling. 

The circumstances in which we have occasion to 
speak are often adapted to affect the heart of the 
speaker with the deepest emotion. This influence 
may be lost for want of due appreciation. Hence 
it is necessary for him to grasp these circumstances 
with his mind, and apply them to his own heart, 
especially in those aspects in which they have 
greatest adaptation to touch and excite the sensi- 
bilities of the soul. The following cases will explain 
what is here intended. 



70 The Sources of Power. 

1. The occasion of speaking may be the untimely 
death of a great man. 

Such a man may be cut off by assassination from 
the highest official station, and the greatest moral 
influence, for whose death a whole nation may be 
filled with grief and indignation, and draped in 
mourning. If now, in such a ease as this, any want of 
emotion were conceivable, what an overwhelming ar- 
ray of circumstances may the speaker cause to pass 
before his mind to excite it ! How can even a brief 
meditation of these fail to awaken the deepest 
emotion ! 

2. Tlve speaker may be called to speak in the national 
legislature upon a great subject. 

As a member of the Senate or House of Kepre- 
sentatives of the United States, he may have to 
speak in the hearing of thirty or forty millions of 
freemen, his fellow citizens, and of the whole civil- 
ized world, upon a question of peace or war, or 
some other measure, which must affect for good or 
evil the life of the nation, and the welfare of the 
people, for generations and ages to come. Now, with 
a due appreciation of the solemnity and responsi- 
bility of every word spoken in such circumstances 
as these, there could be no want surely of that deep 
and full emotion which inspires delivery with power. 

3. He may be called to offer terms of forgiveness and 
reconciliation to men for their sins, being clothed with 
the character and responsibility of an ambassador of 
God to man. 



Feeling. 71 

In this case the speaker's relations to God, and 
his relations to his audience, together with their 
character and circumstances, being grasped with 
the mind, and duly appreciated, are adapted to ex- 
cite the most powerful and tender emotions in his 
own heart. To say nothing of meditation upon 
these circumstances beforehand, a few moments' 
consideration after entering the pulpit, of the as- 
sembly before him, many of them in deep mourn- 
ing, their hearts burdened with sorrow; the con- 
sideration of their secret griefs, their manifold 
temptations, their dangers, fears and spiritual wants, 
and especially their need of spiritual succors and 
consolations — a few moments' consideration of such 
circumstances as these will often flood the heart of 
the Christian minister with such deep emotion, and 
so fill his eyes with tears, that he must check him- 
self by a strong effort of will, in order to be able to 
speak at all. 

§ 37. Meditation of the object of speaking tends to excite 
the requisite feeling. 

The object which the speaker aims to accomplish 
in the minds of the audience, when thoroughly med- 
itated and held before his own mind, will often be 
found even more powerful to excite his emotional 
nature, than the circumstances or occasion of speak- 
ing. 

1. The object may be to impress upon tlie audience the 
worth of American citizenship. 
In this case the speaker should endeavor to pos- 



72 The Soueces of Power. 

sess his own mind with the feeling of the innumer- 
able blessings, social, civil and religious, which this 
high privilege confers, and which renders it so ex- 
ceedingly precious to all who enjoy it, and are able 
to appreciate it. Also he should consider the long 
and bloody struggles, the faith, constancy and self- 
sacrifice, by which our nationality was established, 
and by which it has been maintained and preserved. 
Such considerations will commonly enter into the top- 
ics of his discourse, but in order that his own feelings 
may be duly affected by them, he ought thoroughly 
to meditate upon them in special application to his 
own case, until he feels for himself something of the 
worth and preciousness of his own American citizen- 
ship. 

2. Or it may be to ivin souls to Christ 

In this case he should meditate much upon the 
worth of a single soul, and its almost infinite capaci- 
ties of happiness and misery. He should bethink 
himself of some of the priceless blessings, both in this 
life and in that which is to come, which Christ be- 
stows upon all who come unto him ; and of the appall- 
ing guilt, and everlasting misery, with which men load 
themselves by rejecting or neglecting the great sal- 
vation. Above all, he should thus endeavor to im- 
press his own heart with the all-constraining love 
which Jesus has manifested by giving his life on 
the cross, a ransom for our lost souls. And if, after 
such a meditation, though brief, the speaker can 
come before his audience, and behold a thousand, or 
a hundred of such souls, waiting with respectful at- 



Feeling. 73 

tention, to hear what he has to say, and still be desti- 
tute of feeling, let him dismiss the congregation, and 
tell them that he was never called to preach the un- 
searchable riches of Christ to perishing sinners. 

§ 38. Meditation of the sentiments we have to deliver tends 
to excite the requisite feeling. 

1. This is the most effectual means. 

The sentiments of a discourse, in order to be ap- 
propriate, must spring out of the occasion and the 
object for which it is delivered. Hence meditation 
of the sentiments includes, to a certain extent, that 
of the occasion and object of speaking, and consti- 
tutes the most effective means of exciting the requi- 
site feeling. For in order that the thoughts or sen- 
timents of a discourse should produce their proper 
effect upon the speaker himself, they must be taken 
up by his mind ; his mind must be filled with them ; 
they must be brought into combination with each 
other until they ferment, as it were, or effervesce, and 
overflow ; and this is effected chiefly by meditation. 

2. This is the principal means of exciting the speaker's 
feelings in the delivery of the sentiments of others, as 
also in the exercises of elocutionary training, and in tlie 
delivery of play actors. 

The most important lesson which the student has 
to learn, in delivering the sentiments of others, is to 
fill his mind with them ; to meditate upon them un- 
til he has made them thoroughly his own. For until 
he has learned to do this, and has thereby fired his 
own heart, he cannot speak ; and when he has 



74 The Sources of Power. 

learned this, lie has already ceased to be a tyro, and 
has begun to be a master in his art. The example 
of play actors in this respect is worthy of attention. 
For the amount of study, minute attention, and pa- 
tient meditation, which they bestow upon their 
authors, in order to possess themselves of every 
shade of thought and sentiment, that they may ren- 
der them to the audience with their true power, is 
almost incredible. It is this habit of mind, with re- 
spect to the study of Shakspeare, of which Garrick 
gives us a glimpse in the following couplet: 

"lis niy chief wish, my joy, ray only plan, 
To lose no drop of that immortal man. 

3. The same meditation is necessary in the delivery 
of our own sentiments. 

We are tempted to think that we cannot help 
feeling the power of our own thoughts, when we 
come to deliver them, notwithstanding all experience 
proves the contrary, and shows that we need to 
possess our minds with them, and to apply them to 
our own hearts, with as much assiduity and pains- 
taking meditation as if they were the sentiments of 
others. 

(1.) The advocate, e. g. is called to defend a 
client from injustice and oppression. In this case 
the topics entering into the defence, which are best 
adapted to excite emotion — such as the state of 
society which would result if such wrongs should go 
unpunished, the insult offered to the majesty of the 
law, and to all good citizens, and the pitiable con- 
dition to which the sufferer himself and his family 



Feeling. 75 

have been reduced — such topics should be profound- 
ly meditated by the speaker, until the sentiments 
make their due impression upon his own heart, and 
the fire of feeling is kindled up in his own bosom. 

(2.) Or the preacher of the gospel is about to 
deliver a discourse on the sacrifice of Christ, for 
the object of awakening trust and love in his audi- 
ence. Here he ought to meditate beforehand on 
the faithfulness and love which Christ has manifest- 
ed by the sacrifice of himself in our place ; upon 
his constancy to our cause in the face of all his 
temptations to abandon it ; and upon the elements 
of trustworthiness and loveliness which are embod- 
ied in his person and character ; until he has 
thoroughly possessed himself of such causes or 
reasons for emotion, in application to his own case, 
and until the fountains of trust and love are opened 
in his own soul. This will enable him to speak so 
that none will criticise his want of feeling, or his 
power in delivery. 

§ 39. The second means of exciting the requisite feeling" is 
the cultivation of the sensibilities. 

It has been already observed, as everywhere im- 
plied in the discussion of this source of power, that 
a speaker, in order to be truly eloquent, must be a 
man of sensibility. Hence the systematic cultiva- 
tion of the emotional faculties of the soul, must be 
regarded as an important means of being able to 
command the requisite feeling for each occasion of 
speaking. 



76 The Sources of Power. 

1. The emotional nature is capable of such cultiva- 
tion and development. 

There is,indeed, a great difference between good 
and able men, in this respect, as in all others, but 
there are none in whom this class of faculties are 
not capable of being quickened and purified. The 
esthetic and moral affections — sensibility to beauty, 
physical, intellectual and moral ; sympathy, com- 
passion, hope and joy ; the love of truth, duty and 
justice — these, and all other right affections of the 
soul, are as capable of culture and development as 
the intellectual faculties. 

2. The method of cultivating Hue sensibilities is by ex- 
ercising tluem upon tlieir appropriate objects. 

All the sensibilities of the soul should be system- 
atically exercised upon their appropriate objects ; 
the esthetic, in the contemplation and enjoyment of 
beautiful objects : the moral, upon moral objects. 
Sympathy and pity, e. g. t should be exercised in 
sympathizing with, and in relieving the wants and 
sufferings of those who are in affliction and calam- 
ity ; and so of all the others. Without such exer- 
cise, the sensibilities of the soul grow feeble, 
especially as we advance in years, and our power to 
call forth the requisite feeling, on our various 
occasions of speaking, declines. This is one reason 
why some speakers, whilst young and immature, 
are much more effective than in later life. Instead 
of gaining, they lose power from decline of their 
susceptibility of emotion and passion. 



Feeling. 77 

§ 40. The third means of exciting the requisite feeling is the 
cultivation and exercise of the imagination. 

1. TJie imagination is properly an original source 
of poiver in delivery. 

The imagination is characteristically the faculty 
of art. It is this faculty, above every other, upon 
which depend the arts of poetry, music, painting, 
sculpture, architecture, acting, and, hardly in a less 
degree, that of elocution. In this art it is of such 
importance that it ought to be treated as an inde- 
pendent and original source of power. For the 
sake of brevity, however, it is here taken as a princi- 
pal means of exciting that feeling in the speaker 
which is indispensable to excellence in delivery. 

2. It is by the exercise of this faculty that the play 
actor is enabled to feel as the person whom he person- 
ates. 

By the imagination only is the player enabled to 
identify himself with his stage character, and thus 
come to be affected with all the emotions and 
passions which belong to that character. It is by 
the same faculty, moreover, that he forms distinct, 
vivid, and heart-moving conceptions and images of 
all those causes, reasons and occasions for emotion, 
which are supposed to operate in the case, or 
which would affect his sensibilities if he were in 
truth the living person whom he represents. Hence 
he feels as the character whom he personates is 
supposed to have felt, speaks as he spoke, and 
acts as he acted. This is in part the explanation 
of that marvellous power which the great tragedian 



78 The Sources of Power. 

exercises, in exciting the emotions and passions of 
the audience and spectators. 

3. A similar exercise of tJie imagination is required in 
the training exercises of elocution. 

The teacher of this art will not have failed to ob- 
serve that the difference between those who are quick, 
and those who are slow to learn, turns as much upon 
the degree in which this faculty is possessed or de- 
veloped, as upon any other cause. For precisely as 
in the case of the actor, it is by the exercise of the 
imagination that the student is enabled to bring 
himself under all those influences which inspired the 
author of the passage which he attempts to repro- 
duce. Thus he also becomes for the time, as it 
were, the orator or author whose sentiments he is 
delivering ; and hence is enabled to feel as he felt, 
and to speak as he spoke, or as the words were in- 
tended to be spoken. 

4. Tim imagination is equally necessary to feeling, in 
the practice of oratory. 

For it is by this faculty that we form those dis- 
tinct and vivid conceptions and images of the truth 
which we have to deliver, and of the scenes and in- 
cidents which we have to describe or narrate, by 
which our own hearts become affected with the very 
same feelings which we wish to excite in the audi- 
ence. This it is also which teaches us to lay hold of 
those individual and special traits, and " touches of 
nature," which are most powerful to affect our own 
feelings, and those of the audience. It enables us 
also to enter into the sympathies of the audience, 






Feeling. 79 

and to identify ourselves with those whose sorrows 
we portray, so as to feel the same sorrow ourselves. 

5. This ivhole vieiv of the influence of the imagination 
in exciting the speaker s feelings, is confirmed by 
the higliest authorities. 

(1.) Cicero upon this point delivers himself as 
follows : " There is such force, let me assure you, 
in those thoughts and sentiments which you apply, 
handle and discuss in speaking, that there is no oc- 
casion for simulation or deceit ; for the very nature 
of the language which is adapted to move the 
passions of others, moves the orator himself in a 
greater degree than any who listen to him .... I 
never yet, I assure you, tried to excite sorrow, or 
compassion .... when speaking before a court of 
judicature, but I myself was affected with the very 
same emotions that I wished to excite in the judges." 
Elsewhere he gives us this precept, that " we must 
represent to our imaginations, in the most lively 
manner possible, ah the most striking circumstances 
of the transaction we describe, or of the passion we 
wish to excite in ourselves." 

(2.) Quintilian also teaches us that in order to 
feel as we ought, and thus to exercise the power of 
moving the feelings of the audience, we must form 
such images and representations of absent objects, 
that they shall seem to be present, and we shall seem 
to see them with our eyes. 

" A man of lively imagination," he says, " is one 
who can vividly represent to himself things, voices, 
actions, with the exactness of reality; and this faculty 



80 The Soueces of Power. 

we may readily acquire if we desire it. When, for ex- 
ample, the mind is unoccupied, and we are indulging 
in chimerical hopes, and waking dreams, these 
images beset us so closely that we seem to be not 
thinking but acting, on a journey or a voyage, in a 
battle, or haranguing an assembly, or disposing of 
wealth which we do not possess. Shall we not then 
turn this lawless power of our minds to advan- 
tage ? When I make a complaint that a man has 
been murdered, shall I not bring before my eyes 
everything that is likely to have happened when the 
murder was committed ? Shall not the assassin sud- 
denly rush forth ? Shall not the victim tremble, cry 
out, supplicate, or flee? Shall I not behold the 
murderer striking, the murdered falling ? Shall not 
the blood and paleness and expiring gasp of the 
murdered man present themselves fully to my men- 
tal view ? . . . . For thus our feelings will be moved 
not less strongly than if we were actually present." 



§ 41. The fourth and last means of exciting the requisite 
feeling is the formation of a right moral character. 

It has been much disputed, especially by Cicero 
and Quintilian among the ancients, and by There- 
min in modern times, whether, after all, eloquence 
be not a virtue, rather than an art ; that is, whether 
any but a really good man can speak with the 
greatest power. The true solution of this question 
seems to be, that virtue is not in all cases essential 
to eloquence, but that it is essential to the highest 



Feeling. 81 

eloquence on moral and religious subjects and 
occasions. 

1. Virtue is not essential to all forms and degrees of 
eloquence. 

For it is undeniable that there are subjects and 
occasions on which men of by no means the best 
moral character may be, and have been truly elo- 
quent. The power of oratory in the ancient heathen 
republics is of itself abundant proof of this, which 
is confirmed, moreover, by many examples in 
modern times. For some of our great judicial and 
forensic orators, both in Europe and this country, 
have been men not of the strictest morality. A 
similar remark might be made, perhaps with still 
greater force, of some of the most eminent trage- 
dians. 

2. But virtue is essential to the highest eloquence on 
moral and religious subjects and occasions. 

The reason of this, in so far as it pertains to 
elocution, is that none but a man of high moral 
character can feel, in view of this class of subjects, 
as the speaker must feel in order to deliver himself 
with the greatest power. For the aim of such dis- 
courses is to do good, to make men wiser and 
better, to inform and convince them of moral truth, 
to awaken and quicken their admiration and love of 
whatsoever is morally admirable and lovely, and to 
persuade them to act and live in a virtuous and holy 
manner. The subjects or themes of discourse cor- 
respond to these objects or aims; and with both 
these, doubtless, the character and heart of the 



82 The Soukces of Powee. 

speaker must be in full sympathy, that is, he must 
be a good man, in order to speak with the greatest 
effect. Here eloquence is a spiritual power. It 
was this chiefly which made the delivery of White- 
field and Sommerneld so irresistible. 

3. The feeling which is requisite to the preachiny of 
the gospel with power, is to be sought in prayer for the 
influences of Hie Holy Spirit. 

This it is, above everything else, which affects 
our own hearts with the feeling of the truth which 
we wish to impress upon others, and clothes our 
preaching with spiritual power. For that Spirit 
which gives divine efficacy to the preaching of the 
gospel, dwells in the heart of the preacher. The 
anointing of the heart makes the lips eloquent. The 
baptism of the Spirit is the gift of tongues. 






CHAPTER IV. 

EAKNESTNESS. 

§ 42. Earnestness is one of the principal sources of elo- 
quence. 

Eaknestness is equally essential to eloquence both 
in its rhetorical, and in its oral or elocutionary forms. 
It cannot always, indeed, make a man eloquent, for he 
may lack other qualifications ; but no man can be 
truly eloquent without it. In its relation to rhetoric 
it has often been treated of, though commonly in a 
somewhat vague manner ; but in order to appreciate 
its importance in elocution it is necessary to form a 
precise conception of its nature and mode of opera- 
tion. 

§ 43. Earnestness in speaking is a distinct conception of the 
object aimed at in the minds of the audience, and a strong 
desire to accomplish it. 

It will be seen from this definition that earnest- 
ness is in part a feeling, and therefore included, to 
that extent, in the preceding chapter. There are 
however many reasons why it is indispensable to 



84 The Sources of Power. 

treat it separately, as an independent and original 
source of power in delivery. Among these are the 
following. 

1. Because of the general nature, and distin- 
guished importance of the feeling which enters into 
it, and which, perhaps, is more essential to good 
speaking than any other. 

2. Because it includes also an intellectual opera- 
tion, namely, that of the distinct conception of the 
object which the speaker aims to accomplish in the 
minds of his audience. 

3. Because both this conception of the object, and 
the desire to accomplish it, are among those leading 
states of mind which ought always to govern the 
consciousness of the speaker, and the expression of 
which constitutes good delivery. 

4. Because each of these elements of earnest- 
ness has its own separate relations to power in 
elocution, in consequence of which each requires a 
distinct exhibition in these relations. 



§ 44. The distinct conception of the object to be accomplished 
in the minds of the audience by speaking, is one of the 
governing intellectual operations in all good delivery. 

1. The object of speaking is either explanation, con- 
viction, excitation, or persuasion. 

Rhetoric teaches us that the object of speaking 

must always be conceived of under some one of 

these four general forms. In all speaking, we aim 

either to inform or instruct the audience, by explain- 

ng to their faculties of understanding some fact or 



Eaenestness. 85 

truth ; or to convince their judgments by proving 
some truth, or disproving some error ; or to excite 
their sensibilities ; or to persuade them to some 
action, purpose, or course of life. Most frequently, 
however, the object of speaking appears under the 
last of these forms, with the first three as means of 
accomplishing it. "Whatever the object be, it is ue- 
cessary to form a distinct conception of it before we 
commence to speak, and to hold it firmly in the 
grasp of the mind from the beginning to the end of 
the discourse. 

2. In all good delivery this conception governs the 
subwdinate intellectual operations, as the conception of 
right or justice in the mind of an honest man, governs 
the other operations in driving a bargain. 

This conception of the object of speaking need 
not, indeed, be always an immediate object of con- 
sciousness ; the speaker need not be always actual- 
ly thinking about it ; but it must at all times under- 
lie and support the other intellectual operations, 
as the conception of honesty should underlie the op- 
erations of a business transaction. It must preside 
over them all, and give them direction, as in the 
case of the traveller, the conception of the place to 
which he is going presides over, and gives direction 
to all his steps. It constitutes the light, or medium 
of vision, through which all subordinate objects are 
made manifest to the speaker's mind. For in all 
good delivery the speaker does not even think of 
what he is saying, as having any character, form, 
or meaning for its own sake, but simply as adapted 



86 The Sources of Power. 

to effect the object at which he aims in the minds 
of the audience. 

2. This conception enables the speaker to suppress the 
sub-processes. 

This conception of the object, being thus held in 
the grasp of the mind, throws all those intellectual 
operations which are secondary and subordinate, 
into the background, and enables the speaker to 
suppress them, so that they shall not manifest them- 
selves in the delivery (§§ 22 — 23.) Thus it subordin- 
ates all the processes of memory, and of reading, 
and of invention and style ; in this last case, what- 
ever pertains to the extempore working out of the 
matter and form of the discourse. Hence these 
sub-processes have no effect in marring or enfee- 
bling the delivery. 

§ 45. The desire to accomplish the object is one of the gov- 
erning exercises of the sensibility, quickening and regu- 
lating the whole mental action. 

1. The influence of this desire is analogous to that of 
tlie conception of the object, and it extends beyond this 
analogy. 

For it bears a relation to the other exercises of 
the sensibility, similar to that which the conception 
of the object bears to the other intellectual pro- 
cesses. This relation does not therefore require to 
be again developed, because the analogy holds good 
throughout, even to the fact that the desire need 
not be at all times immediately prominent in the 
consciousness, although in good speakers it is al- 



Eaenestness. 87 

ways in full and controlling activity. But its in- 
fluence extends beyond this analogy, in that it is 
not limited to the other operations of the sensibil- 
ity, but it affects also no less powerfully the intel- 
lectual faculties, and their operations. 

2. It stimulates and quickens all the mental faculties 
to tlieir utmost capacity of energy and activity. 

This desire to accomplish the object, when full 
and strong, stimulates the intellect, so that it be- 
comes capable of more rapid and effective thinking 
than it is at other times. Its influence is equally 
great upon all those feelings whose function it is 
to co-operate in giving power to delivery. When, 
e. g. a man's life, or reputation, or any other object 
most dear to him, depends upon his convincing a 
court of his innocence, the strength of his desire to 
accomplish this object can hardly fail to energize 
all his faculties, both intellectual and emotional, 
to their .utmost capacities. 

3. It regulates the other feelings, the uncontrolled ac- 
tivity of which might othenvise mar the delivery. 

Self-control will require to be treated hereafter as 
an original source of power ; here, therefore, it will 
be sufficient to indicate the general relation of this 
desire to the regulation of the emotional activity. 
In the case above supposed, then, of a man pleading 
for his life, the desire to save it would prompt and 
enable him to keep all his other feelings under 
severe restraint, lest they should manifest them- 
selves in such a way as to mar his delivery, and 
defeat his object. In all other cases it is indispen- 



88 The Sources oe Power. 

sable that this desire to accomplish the object of 
speaking, should never cease to exert its influence 
and control of the other feelings. For if any other 
be allowed to get the better of this, and to mani- 
fest itself without control, it may easily produce an 
effect upon the audience directly the opposite of 
that which is desired. Sorrow, e. g. manifesting 
itself in copious tears, may choke the utterance, 
and become extremely offensive, producing all the 
effects of drivelling. Unrestrained passion of any 
kind may lead to indistinctness of articulation, vo- 
ciferation, and a thousand other faults, any one of 
which would go far to defeat the object of speaking. 
Even when the desire to effect the object may seem 
to give way for a moment to an outgushing of pity 
or grief, or to a blast of indignation or scorn, it is 
still necessary that it should not really cease to 
control the other emotions and passions. 

§ 46. Earnestness purges the delivery from the expression 
of irrelevant thoughts and feelings, and gives to the signs 
employed their characteristic excellence. 

From the consideration of these two elements 
which enter into earnestness in speaking, and of 
their relations to the other mental operations and 
exercises, we shall be the better able to appreciate 
the influence of this source of power upon the de- 
livery. 

1. It purges the delivery from the expression of 
irrelevant thoughts and feelings. 

This at least is always its tendency. For when 



Earnestness. 89 

the intellect of the speaker is fully occupied with 
the thought of his object, and his heart with the 
desire of accomplishing it, this leaves no place for 
any thoughts about himself, his tones, inflections, 
articulation, emphasis, or gesture, nor for any 
conceits or anxieties about his manner ; conse- 
quently it purges, or tends to purge, his delivery 
from the vices of awkwardness, mannerism and 
affectation, in which such thoughts and feelings 
never fail to express themselves. His mind, being 
freed from such distracting and enfeebling occupa- 
tions, naturally throws all its faculties and powers 
into the proper work of delivery. It may be said, 
therefore, that nothing purifies the mind and whole 
manner of the speaker, like being in dead earnest. 

2. It gives to the Signs employed, ivhether oral or 
visible, their characteristic excellence. 

This again is its tendency. It gives simplicity 
and directness to the whole manner, and adapts it 
to effect the object in view. It clothes the gestures 
with propriety and force. It imparts seriousness 
and gravity to the features, depth and power of 
expression to the eye. It gives fullness, strength 
and depth to the voice, and a certain characteristic 
quality, which makes it seem to come not so much 
from the throat or lungs, as from the depths of the 
heart — a quality which is sure to reach the hearts 
of the audience. Also it brings to bear upon the 
audience a steady and sustained mental pressure, 
imparting a sostenuto character to the whole deliv- 
ery, which is never intermitted even in the longest 



90 The Sources of Powee. 

pauses, and which is one of the most telling traits 
of a strong delivery. In fine, it is the earnestness of 
the speaker, which, in the words of our greatest 
American orator, comes " beaming from the eye, 
speaking on the tongue, informing every feature, 
and urging the whole man onward, right onward to 
his object." 



§ 47. Particular occasions may inspire earnestness $ but in 
order to secure it in speaking upon great social, moral, 
and religious subjects, it is necessary to be an earnest 
man. 

It can hardly be considered as belonging to elocu- 
tion to treat of the means by which earnestness may 
be acquired ; and in so far as this might be proper, 
it has been anticipated in the preceding discussions 
of the means by which we may secure the requi- 
site feeling for each occasion of speaking. Yet it 
may be well to allude to one or two points here, in 
order further to aid the student in availing himself 
of this source of power in delivery. 

1. There are particular occasions which will inspire 
any man with earnestness. 

Thus the advocate will naturally be in earnest in 
defending his client when his professional reputation 
depends upon his success, or when the case will pay 
well, or when he desires to defeat and humble a pro- 
fessional rival. The politician also may be very earn- 
est in speaking in order to secure the election of a 
favorite candidate, by whom he hopes to be promot- 
ed to office, or from other merely selfish and parti- 



Eaenestness. 91 

san motives. In general, it is easy to be in earnest 
in the pursuit of any object in which we feel our- 
selves to be deeply and personally interested. 

2. But in order to be in earnest in speaking upon 
great social, moral and religious subjects, it is necessary 
to be an earnest man. 

(1.) In the pulpit especially, where we address 
frequently the same audience, upon great moral and 
religious truths, all motives of a selfish or worldly 
character will commonly fail to impart earnestness 
to the delivery. Here it is indispensable that the 
whole moral nature of the speaker should be habit- 
ually filled and inspired, not occasionally and in a 
factitious manner excited, by the desire to accom- 
plish the object for which he speaks. Here nothing 
can supply, even for elocutionary purposes, the want 
of a living faith, and a personal interest, in the 
solemn and glorious truth we have to declare, or 
the want of a deep and heart-piercing conviction 
that the salvation of those to whom we speak depends 
upon their believing it, or the want of an habitual 
and all-constraining desire that they should believe 
and be saved. This was the source of the eloquence 
of the prophets and apostles, as it has been of all 
other great and powerful preachers of the gospel. 

(2.) In like manner, all the other great human in- 
terests, if we would promote them by speaking, 
must he at all times very near our hearts. They 
must be the objects for which we not only speak, 
but constantly five. We must take serious views of 
serious things ; habitually exclude all low and 



92 The Soukces of Power. 

grovelling and unworthy thoughts, and fill our souls 
with pure, lofty and magnanimous sentiments ; sen- 
timents which are superior to all selfish considera- 
tions; sentiments above the fear of death, because 
they belong to that in us which is immortal. In a 
word, we must be able to draw our inspiration from 
the deep fountains of patriotism and philanthropy, 
from the love of our country and our kind, from lib- 
erty, justice, truth and God. It is this which in- 
spires delivery with power. 

3. Ingenuous youth are naturally attracted to the 
study of eloquence. 

Hence that beautiful enthusiasm, which is so char- 
acteristic of ingenuous youth, naturally attracts them 
to these studies, and prompts them to eloquence ; 
whilst that levity and mockery in presence of the 
high aims and solemn responsibilities of life, in 
which the foolish only indulge, are no less fatal to 
their hopes of eloquence than of every other excel- 
lence. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE MENTAL STATE OF DIRECT ADDRESS TO THE 
AUDIENCE. 

§ 48. The perfection of oratory is the perfection of talking 
to people. 

Oratory is oral discourse addressed immediately 
and directly to the minds of people who constitute 
an audience. Hence it may be said that the begin- 
ning, middle and end of oratorical excellence is 
nothing else but the perfection of talking to people. 
The mutual relations between the mind of the speak- 
er and those of the audience, are attention and sym- 
pathy on their part, and on his, that of speaking 
directly to them. Both of these relations are among 
the most fruitful sources of power in delivery. The 
full and steady consciousness in the mind of the 
speaker, of direct address to the minds of the audi- 
ence before him, is the third, and in many respects 
one of the most important of the four leading men- 
tal operations the expression of which constitutes 
good delivery (§ 22.) In fact, it inspires elocution 
with so many and such great excellences, whilst the 
want of it, which is extremely prevalent, occasions 



94 The Sources of Powek. 

so many and such damaging faults, that it may 
properly be called the first law of oratory. 



§ 49. While speaking 1 directly to the audience tie speaker 
is engaged in his proper work, and consequently he is 
enabled to do it well, 

Speaking directly to the people before him is the 
orator's proper work in delivery — his whole business 
for the time. Hence it requires his undivided atten- 
tion — the exercise of all his faculties and powers. 
Whilst, therefore, he is thus engaged in his proper 
work, whilst it constitutes the dominant operation 
of his mind and consciousness, he is giving his at- 
tention to what he is about, he is minding his 
present business. The natural consequence of this 
is that he does his work well, just as in any other 
case in which a person gives himself up to the work 
which he has in hand. Conversely, when the 
speaker loses his consciousness of direct address to 
the people before him, his state of mind is that of 
forgetting what he is about ; he is not minding the 
business he has in hand ; he is occupied with some- 
thing else, inconsistent, and often totally incompati- 
ble witl^ the expression of what he has to deliver. 
Hence it becomes impossible for him to do his work 
well, just as in every other case in which a person 
forgets what he is about, and allows his mind to 
become otherwise occupied. 



Dieect Address to the Audience. 95 

§ 50. Speaking directly to the audience brings the speaker 
into the true vital relations to them, by which he is en- 
abled to grasp them with his mind, and exert a direct 
mental influence upon tliem. 

1. The vital relations of the speaker to his audience 
are similar to those of tJw great musical artist. 

These relations are of the utmost importance in 
delivery, as also in music ; and hence they will re- 
quire to be more fully treated under the head of 
attention and sympathy as a source of power. In 
explanation of them, it may be proper to refer to a 
conversation which occurred between the author 
and Ole Bull, the Norwegian violinist. Speaking of 
the effect of his " Mother's Prayer," which the eve- 
ning before had melted the audience to tears, he 
said : " Do you know that I do not produce these 
effects by the mere sounds of my violin? I pro- 
duce them by the direct action of my mind upon 
the minds of the audience. I employ the tones of 
the instrument simply for the purpose of opening 
the channels through which I myself act upon their 
hearts." This idea he then proceeded to unfold 
in a profound, but somewhat mystical discourse 
upon the mental sources of power in art. 

2. In these relations the speaker grasps his audience 
with his mind, and exerts that direct mental influence 
upon them which is the magnetism of eloquence. 

Speaking directly to the audience implies of 
course a strong consciousness of their presence, and 
of the thoughts or sentiments as addressed to them. 
It implies, moreover, that the speaker thinks of them 



96 The Soubces of Poweb. 

as people, that is, as persons clothed with all. the 
attributes of human beings, in a word, as men and 
women. He grasps them thus with his mind, and 
holds them steadily in his mental grasp. This en- 
ables him to gain their attention and sympathy, 
and to bring all his personal power, as a man, to 
bear upon them, as men and women of like pas- 
sions with himself. Thus he pours his thoughts 
and feelings into them through the open, but ever 
mysterious channels of the sympathetic affections. 
This direct mental action of the speaker upon the 
minds of the audience, is one of the great secrets 
of a powerful delivery ; it is the magnetism of elo- 
quence. 

3. The loss of tlie consciousness of speaking directly 
to the audience breaks up these vital relations, paralyzes 
the action of the speaker's mind upon the audience, and 
renders it subject to the dominant influence of the sub- 
processes. 

Whenever the mental act of speaking directly to 
the audience ceases, or ceases to be one of the 
dominant mental operations, the speaker no longer 
recognizes the presence of the audience, or it be- 
comes to him something dim, shadowy and inef- 
fectual. He does not grasp them with his mind, 
nor engage their attention. His thoughts are with- 
drawn from them, and leave their thoughts to wan- 
der from him, and from all that he pretends, but 
utterly fails to say to them. The leading opera- 
tions of his mind become those of invention and 
style, or those of remembering, or those of taking 
in the sense of his manuscript ; or his mind be- 



Direct Address to the Audience. 97 

comes chiefly occupied with other irrelevant thoughts, 
perhaps still more incompatible with true ex- 
pression. Hence the delivery, if such it may be 
called, being of necessity the expression of the men- 
tal operations in which he is immediately and 
chiefly engaged (§ 21), becomes wholly false and 
powerless. 

§ 51-. Speaking directly to the audience moulds, adapts 
and directs all the signs employed to their true object or 
aim. 

1. The signs employed in speaking to others are 
different from those employed in solitary musing, or 
when the consciousness of the presence of others is lost. 

The same thoughts and feelings when expressed 
in the presence of others, and directed to their 
minds, commonly take somewhat different signs, 
both oral and visible, from those which are natural 
when one is speaking to himself. In some cases 
this difference may appear to be very slight, but it 
is not therefore insignificant. In others it is evi- 
dent and palpable ; as, e. g. in the greater degree 
of loudness and distinctness which is natural in 
speaking to a large audience, compared with what 
would be required in solitary musing. In like man- 
ner, it will be found upon careful observation, that 
the manifestations of love, anger, disgust, and all 
other feelings, in the presence of others, and as 
directed to their minds, cannot be confounded with 
those which these passions sometimes seek in soli- 
tude for their own relief, or when the consciousness 
of the presence of the audience is lost. 



98 The Soueces of Powee. 

2. The consciousness of speaking directly to the 
audience gives their true form and character to all tlie 
signs.. 

Inasmuch as all speaking consists in the expres- 
sion of the leading operations of the speaker's 
mind (§ 21), it is evident that the mental action of 
speaking directly to the audience must always pre- 
dominate in the consciousness of the speaker, in 
order that the delivery should take on its true 
character and form, and should keep true to its 
object. It is this mental state which gives to all 
the signs, both of voice and gesture, their last 
modification and adaptation to the object which 
they aim to effect. The mind of the speaker, e. g., 
being directed to his audience, his eye naturally 
follows his mind — he looks at them ; and not barely 
as " a sea of faces," without distinction, but he 
scans their individual countenances, notes their 
several expressions, and thus becomes conscious of 
the effect which he is producing upon them. All 
the gestures are affected in a similar manner. Thus 
also the voice, as we have seen, naturally becomes 
sufficiently loud, and the articulation sufficiently 
hard and firm, to ensure that the speaker shall be 
heard and understood by the most distant person 
to whom he is speaking. Similar modifications are 
produced upon every sound, and every variation of 
sound, which he utters. In fine, it is this conscious- 
ness of the presence of the audience, and of speak- 
ing directly to them, for the accomplishment of 
his object, which gives the last moulding touch to 
all the signs. It is this which gives point and 



Direct Addeess to the Audience. 99 

direction to all those arrows of significant sound 
and gesture, which every moment are launched, by 
the force of his thoughts and passions, from the 
speaker's lips, eyes, countenance, and from all the 
motions of his hands, arms and body, into the 
minds and hearts of his audience, and which makes 
them feel that they are the object of a well- 
manned battery, playing upon them with no uncertain 
aim. 



§ 52. The loss of tiiis consciousness of direct address loads 
the delivery with rices, by rendering* it the expression of 
the sub-processes, by perverting" all the signs, and by 
enfeebling its rhetorical form. 

1. It renders the speaking tlie expression of the sub- 
processes. 

Whenever this consciousness of speaking directly 
to the audience ceases to be a dominant operation 
of the speaker's mind, it naturally gives" place to 
some of the sub-processes (§23). These now be- 
come the leading mental operations, and give shape 
and form to all the signs ; and the expression of 
these sub-processes constitutes the delivery. If 
this leading operation be that of recalling, by a 
labored effort, what the speaker has committed to 
memory, his speaking becomes, as we shall see 
more fully hereafter, nothing but a wretched per- 
formance upon this mental act of remembering, 
without any true or vital relation to the communi- 
cation to others of the thoughts or sentiments of 
his speech. If it be that of extempore invention, 



100 The Sources of Power. 

he stands musing before the audience, instead of 
speaking to them ; and if it be that of taking in 
the sense of his manuscript through the eye, the 
speaking truly expresses that, and nothing else. 
In fine, if the leading mental exercise be that of 
thinking about himself, his tones, inflections, artic- 
ulations, emphasis, or gestures, or of seeking to 
know what the people think of him, whether he is 
succeeding or not, or of anxiety or fear lest he 
should be making a failure — no matter what it is 
which now constitutes the leading operation of his 
mind, it must be this, and nothing else, which he 
expresses and delivers to the audience. 

2. It deforms and perverts all Hue signs. 

The mind of the speaker being withdrawn from 
the audience, his eye again follows his mind. It 
ceases to take in the people before him ; it becomes 
either vacant, expressing abstraction from the busi- 
ness in hand, or it wanders listlessly over the audi- 
ence, with a dim and confused glance which takes 
note of nothing, or it is raised to the ceiling, or con- 
fined -to the manuscript, or closed. The voice no 
longer adapts itself to the size of the audience ; it 
is either too low, or too loud ; the movement, either 
too fast or too slow ; and those variations required 
by the sentiment are no longer given. All the 
sounds and gestures become equally inappropriate, 
and foreign to the communication and impression 
of the thoughts and feelings which the words are 
intended to express. 



DlKECT ADDEESS TO THE AUDIENCE. 101 

3. It vitiates the delivery by enfeebling its rhetorical 
forms. 

The loss of this consciousness perverts those 
forms in which the speaker seems to address the 
audience most directly, into such feeble abstractions 
as the phrase, " my hearers," in the place of strong 
personal attributes, such as "my friends," "my 
neighbors," " my brethren," " my countrymen," " my 
fellow citizens." For " my hearers," though often 
heard from the lips of good speakers, is essentially 
vicious, because it does not spring out of the con- 
ception of the audience as composed of persons, 
with all the passions of human beings, but regards 
them as abstractions, clothed with the single function 
of hearing. How wretchedly does it compare 
with the "Avdpes 'ABrjvawi, of Pericles and Demos- 
thenes, and with the "Avdpes 'aSeXcpol, of St. Peter 
and St. Paul! If the speech which Shakspeare 
puts into the mouth of Brutus, on the death of 
Cesar, began with " my hearers," instead of " Ko- 
mans, countrymen, and lovers," not Eoscius himself, 
nor Garrick, nor Kemble could give it any power in 
delivery. 



§ 53. The way to maintain tills consciousness of direct ad- 
dress to the audience is to be in earnest. 

The only influence which can enable the speaker 
to maintain in constant activity the consciousness 
that he is speaking directly to the audience, is the 
full and clear conception of the object at which he 



102 The Soueces of Power. 

aims, and the strong desire to accomplish it ; that is, 
to be in earnest. But this is itself so fruitful a source 
of power, that it has already required to be treated 
separately. 




CHAPTER VI. 

ATTENTION AND SYMPATHY. 

§ 54. Attention and sympathy are so connected with each 
other as to form one sonrce of power in delivery. 

Sympathy is liere taken in its most comprehensive 
sense, as inclusive of all the sympathetic relations 
and influences between the audience and speaker, 
and between the individuals of whom the audience 
is composed. The attention of the audience is here 
joined with sympathy, making one source of power 
in delivery, for the reason that it is the necessary 
condition apart from which the sympathetic affec- 
tions cannot be excited in the interest, or in aid of 
elocution. Each however has its separate relations 
to elocutionary power, which must not be overlooked. 

§ 55. Eloquence is the joint product of the mental action of 
the speaker and audience; the orator's sensibility to 
the states of mind in the audience is very great. 

1. The reciprocal influence of speaker and audience 
is of great importance, especially icliere the speaker 
frequew&y addresses the same audience. 

This reciprocal influence is productive of some of 



104 The Soukces of Powee. 

the most interesting and important results in elocu- 
tion. In fact it is such that good delivery, and even 
eloquence itself, may properly be regarded as a 
joint product of the mental operations of speaker 
and audience. It can hardly be over estimated 
where the speaker is called frequently to ad- 
dress the same, or nearly the same audience, as 
in the case of the pastor of a Christian congrega- 
tion. 

(1.) The influence of the speaker upon the audi- 
ence is exemplified in the case of a pastor who is 
dull and feeble in his delivery. For the tendency 
of his Spiritless harangues is to render the audi- 
ence habitually inattentive, unsympathizing and 
insensible. But if the pastor be an animated and 
interesting speaker, the tendency of his ministra- 
tions will be to develop habits of attention and sym- 
pathy in his people, to sharpen their minds, and 
quicken their sensibilities, and to render them more 
and more appreciative of eloquence. 

(2.) The influence of the audience upon the 
speaker Is such that an attentive and sympathizing- 
congregation can hardly fail to develop speaking 
talents, and powers of eloquence, in their pastor, 
of which in other circumstances he might never 
have become conscious, nor given any manifestation ; 
whilst an inattentive, unsympathizing and stupid 
peoplo will exert a strong influence to dwarf the 
faculties, and put out the intellectual light of their 
minister, who might otherwise have attained to no 
inconsiderable excellence as a pulpit orator. 



Attention and Sympathy. 105 

2. The sensibility of the true orator to the mental 
state of the audience is very great. 

In fact the degree of this sensibility is an infalli- 
ble test of natural genius for public speaking. For 
he who does not feel the need of the attention and 
sympathy of his audience, who hardly knows wheth- 
er he has it or not, and who can speak about as well 
without it as with it — for there are such speakers — 
that man is incapable of eloquence, and ought to 
dismiss all thoughts of becoming an orator. The 
speaker who has any natural adaptation or genius for 
this art, seems to reflect, as it were, all the states 
and changes of mind and feeling which take place 
in those to whom he is speaking. He seems to 
know by instinct whether he is heard by the whole 
audience, whether he has their attention, whether 
they understand what he is saying, and whether 
they are favorably or unfavorably affected by it ; and 
he feels as if it were almost impossible for him to 
proceed in his discourse, until he has succeeded in 
fixing their attention, and in gaining their sympa- 

%. 

3. In his most favorable moods this sensibility some- 
times rises to an almost preternatural height. 

In such mental states the speaker is affected by 
every breath or current of thought and feeling in the 
audience. He feels himself to be the object of a sep- 
arate stream of mental influence from every person 
in the audience, as if they were all so many gal- 
vanic batteries, with all the several wires of com- 
munication centring in his own bosom. By such 



106 The Sources of Power. 

mysterious cords of sympathetic communion, all 
their states of mind, and changes of feeling, are 
telegraphed to his mind. When he is in the full 
tide of successful oratory, sweeping the whole au- 
dience along with him, as a river at flood, if then 
he should happen to say anything which calls forth 
opposition, or if unexpectedly there should be start- 
ed some oblique or contrary current in their minds, 
he becomes aware of it the moment he enters it, 
even when he may be wholly unable to divine its 
cause, or what he may have said to excite it. The 
swimmer passing suddenly from a warm into a cold 
current of water, cannot be more immediately sen- 
sible of the change. 

§ 56. The quickening influence which the audience exerts 
upon the faculties of the speaker, is one of the most fruit- 
ful sources of power in delivery. 

1. Even opposition in the audience may aid tlie 
speaker. 

Such extreme sensibility as that which has just 
been described, has indeed its disadvantages, but 
its advantages greatly preponderate. A speaker 
who lacks confidence may be overcome by an ad- 
verse state of mind in the audience, so that he can- 
not proceed. But its effects upon a strong speaker, 
who is confident of his powers, is to excite and 
nerve him to greater efforts to make head against 
the opposition, and to overcome it. Thus the ad- 
verse influence is converted into a stimulus and 
quickening of all his faculties and powers. 



Attention and Sympathy. 107 

2. A favorable sentiment in the audience has a still 
greater quickening influence. 

When the impression which the speaker makes 
is altogether favorable, as the audience becomes 
more and more attentive, and more and more favor- 
ably excited, he draws from their states of mind, 
every moment, new and stronger inspiration, and 
ever-increasing power. The tension of thought in 
the audience, and their excited feelings, poured in 
upon him through the channels of sympathy, in- 
tensify the action of his own intellect, flood his 
heart with emotion, and quicken, purify and elevate 
every faculty of his mind and body. Sometimes this 
influence will seem almost to lift him off his feet ; he 
will seem to tread on air. He now speaks in a kind 
of ecstasy or rapture. However long he may be en- 
gaged, he is unconscious of fatigue or effort. All 
seems to pass in a moment of time. The audience 
also are unconscious of time, for this is eloquence. 

§ 57. The attention and sympathy of the audience enable the 
speaker to suppress the sub-processes, and to exert all 
his faculties in the proper work of delivery. 

These are the more special benefits which are de- 
rived from this source of power ; not, however, that it 
will yield them to every speaker, but such is its ten- 
dency. 

1. An attentive and sympathizing audience relieves 
the speaker from tJie consciousness of the sub-processes, 
and enables him to suppress them. 

This arises from the fact just exhibited, that the 



108 The Sources op Power. 

influence of such an audience quickens and inten- 
sifies that whole mental action which is engaged in 
the expression and communication of thought. 
Under this influence, if the speaker uses his manu- 
script, he is unconscious of being dependent upon 
it ; he does not know that he turns the leaves, nor 
even that he has it before him. Speaking from 
memory, he is unconscious of the exercise of this 
faculty ; a flood of light seems to pour itself over 
the whole discourse in his mind ; so that by a single 
mental act, he comprehends and sees it from be- 
ginning to end. Speaking extempore, he is un- 
conscious of labor or effort in invention, arrange- 
ment, or verbal expression; his thoughts seem to 
come by inspiration, to fall of themselves into the 
most appropriate and lucid order ; to choose their 
own words, and to secure the most effective utter- 
ance. Thus released from the consciousness of 
these and other sub-processes, he instinctively sup- 
presses all manifestation of them ; they have no 
tendency to appear in false intonation, misplaced 
emphasis, nor in any other of those innumerable 
vices, with which they are otherwise certain to 
load and enfeeble the delivery. 

2. The influence of such an audience enables the 
speaker to exert all his faculties in the proper work of 
delivery. 

The whole tendency of such attention and sym- 
pathy, is to render all the other sources of power 
available in the highest degree. For it establishes 
and confirms in the mind of the speaker the con- 



Attention and Sympathy. 109 

sciousness of speaking directly to the people before 
him; it enables Mm to grasp and hold fast the 
object which he aims to accomplish in their minds, 
and intensifies his desire to accomplish it ; it deep- 
ens his feeling of the power of the thoughts and 
sentiments which he expresses ; it fills his heart 
with the emotions which he seeks to excite in the 
audience ; and it gives him confidence by assuring 
him that he is not making a failure, but is achiev- 
ing success. 

3. It purifies the signs employed, and renders them 
forcibly expressive. 

As the effect of the speaking becomes more and 
more apparent, in the increasing stillness and at- 
tention of the audience, this effect returns upon the 
speaker himseif, with a corresponding increase of 
his power over the signs which he employs. His 
efforts are intensified that he may not allow the 
audience to lose a thought, nor the shade of a 
thought, which he has to deliver. Thus his artic- 
ulation is purified and strengthened ; his voice in- 
creases in force, compass and flexibility ; it be- 
comes more full and deep and pure ; greater breadth 
and significance are given to his inflections ; his 
eye and countenance become more animated and 
expressive. The position and motions of his body 
become more graceful, appropriate and striking ; 
and the gestures made with his arms and hands 
more free and forcible. A similar effect is pro- 
duced upon all the sounds he utters, and upon all 
his gestures. 



110 The Sources of Power. 

§ 58. The effect of the speaking is greatly increased by the 
sympathy of the audience with each other. 

1. The sympathy of the audience with each other is 
one of those influences which make oral superior to 
ivritten discourse. 

The influence of such sympathy can hardly be 
overestimated, although the manner in which it 
produces its effects is very imperfectly understood. 
Both thought and feeling are thus propagated 
from mind to mind, and from heart to heart. This 
fact goes far to explain the superiority of oral over 
written discourse, that the highest form of eloquence 
is embodied in oral speaking (§ 2 — 1, 2), and that the 
gospel must be proclaimed by the voice of the liv- 
ing preacher (§ 7). 

2. It gives to discourse an effect oeypnd its inherent 
merits. 

Counting upon the influence of this sympathetic 
action of the minds of the audience upon each 
other, the speaker may expect, and thus become 
enabled to produce vastly greater results than 
were otherwise possible. His thoughts and senti- 
ments, when he comes to deliver them, will naturally 
have a far greater effect upon the audience than 
could be anticipated from their intrinsic merit. In 
fact that which in the study appears to be compar- 
atively poor and feeble, is often thus found in 
delivery to have the effect of eloquence. 

3. The attention of the audience is indispensable to 
this sympathy. 

In order to such results, it is necessary that the 



Attention and Sympathy. Ill 

attention of the audience should first be gained, 
and concentrated upon the thoughts and senti- 
ments of the speaker, as they are delivered. This 
is indispensable to the free play, and greatest effect 
of the sympathetic action. For even a single 
person who is inattentive, or whose mind is other- 
wise occupied, not only fails to contribute his share 
to the effect, but he presents an obstacle to the 
propagation and flow of the common feeling, and 
exerts a positive influence in crossing and confus- 
ing the mysterious currents of sympathy and 
thought. 

4. Concentration of the faculties of all intensifies the 
result. 

When the attention of the audience has been 
gained, their sympathies with each other begin to 
act ; and then all their intellectual power, and all 
their sensibilities are easily excited, by the mutual 
action of their faculties upon each other. For when 
the minds of a whole assembly are thus occupied 
with one and the same thought, as this is expressed 
by the speaker, that thought is perceived more 
clearly, and felt more deeply, than it could ever be 
by any individual alone ; and when a common pas- 
sion has been excited in a crowded audience, it 
works more powerfully, and produces unspeak- 
ably greater effects, than in any other circum- 
stances. 



§ 59. The means of engaging attention and sympathy are 
sentiments worthy of attention, a simple, earnest and 



112 The Sources of Power. 






respectful manner and tones, the eye fixed upon the 
audience, pauses and striking figures of speech. 

1. All pains should be taken to engage the attention 
and sympathy of tJie audience. 

The importance of this source of power is evident 
from what has been said ; in fact it is such that the 
speaker should neglect no lawful means to avail 
himself of it. It would seem that a great many of 
the eccentricities which appear in some popular 
orators, both in their style and manner of delivery, 
are to be understood as mere expedients to awaken 
and fix attention. Such eccentricities cannot be 
justified, although they may be pardoned, because 
there are perfectly legitimate means of securing this 
indispensable result, which, rightly applied, can 
hardly fail on any ordinary occasion. They are 
partly of a rhetorical character, and belong only in 
part to elocution. 

2. The speaker must have something to say ivhich is 
worthy of attention, and adapted to awaken sym- 
pathy. 

This is the first and most important of such 
means, one which will go far to secure the end ; 
whilst without this, everything else ought to fail, and 
in the long run is pretty certain to do so. (See Part 
I. Chap. II.) 

3. His manner and tones must be simple, earnest and 
respectful. 

A simple, frank and artless manner, free from 
pretentiousness and affectation, and one at the same 



Attention and Sympathy. 113 

le earnest, respectful and affectionate, has great 
power to engage attention, and awaken sympathy. 
These are the principal elements of what is called 
an engaging manner. Nothing is more engaging 
than childlike simplicity. An affected, pretentious, 
or pompous manner forewarns the audience that 
the speaker is a fool. Also the tones of the speak- 
er's voice should express sincere respect for the 
audience, an affectionate interest in them, and an 
earnest desire for their attentive and favorable con- 
sideration of what he has to say — as if he felt, what 
he ought always to feel, that it were almost impossi- 
ble for him to proceed without it. 

4. The speaker's eye should be fixed upon the au- 
dience. 

It is indispensable that the speaker should not 
allow his eye to become fixed upon his manuscript, 
nor to wander around the walls, or up to the ceiling, 
nor to express in any way abstraction from the 
business in hand. He must bring his eye to bear 
steadily upon the people before him, scanning their 
countenances individually, and noting every sign of 
attention, or of the want of it. "Where he perceives 
inattention, or any lack of interest, he should keep 
looking at the persons in whom it is manifested, and 
seem to direct his words more particularly to them, 
until he makes them feel that he is almost calling 
them by name. This however requires care to 
avoid giving offence. He must, indeed, be ever on 
his guard, in such circumstances, against the temp- 
tation to manifest annoyance or irritation. 



114 The Sources of Power. 

5. Pauses and striking figures of speech may he in- 
troduced. 

When the speaker finds it difficult to fix atten- 
tion, he may resort to other expedients which, in 
favorable circumstances, ought not to be necessary. 
One of these is to pause in his exordium, and remain 
silent for a moment, until his object is gained. 
Another is to throw into his discourse a more than 
common bold and striking rhetorical figure. Either 
of these expedients will hardly ever fail to secure 
immediate and fixed attention. 

6. In difficult cases lie may exercise authority over the 
audience, but with special care not to manifest irritation. 

Whenever the audience proves refractory in an 
extraordinary degree, which will sometimes be the 
case, the orator must not yield to them, or he is 
lost. He must try to rise with the difficulty, and 
by his voice, countenance and manner, exert a 
certain authority over them, for which his position 
and relations to them afford him peculiar advan- 
tages. But here again he must be on his guard 
against irritation. For if he show temper, they 
will not be slow to perceive that they have gained 
the mastery ; and having discovered his weak point, 
they will not be tender of it. Therefore, with un- 
ruffled temper, and perfect good nature, by his eye, 
countenance, tones and whole manner, he should 
seem to say, My friends, I am here to speak to 
you, and I am going to do it ; you are here to 
listen, and you have got to do it — the sooner you 
begin, the better it will be for us both. 



Attention and Sympathy. 115 

7. Some such means as the 'preceding will commonly 
prove effectual. 

By such means as these, unless there be some 
extraordinary cause of opposition, the orator can 
hardly fail to succeed in fixing the attention of his 
audience, through which he may readily excite 
their sympathies, and derive all the aids to delivery 
which flow from this source of power. 



CHAPTEE VII. 

MASTERY OF THE SUBJECT-MATTER IN EXTEM- 
PORE DISCOURSE. 

60. Mastery of the subject is a source of power in every 
species of delivery, but especially in extempore speaking. 



It is a fundamental principle, alike applicable to 
every species of discourse, that we must have some 
notion of what we are going to say, before we un- 
dertake to say it. Speaking, therefore, on any seri- 
ous occasion, without preparation beforehand, ex- 
cept where it cannot be avoided, is a very foolish 
thing, which no sensible man will ever allow himself 
to do, except under dire necessity ; nor then does he 
ever expect to do justice, either to himself or his 
subject, in rhetoric or elocution. But here this 
source of power is to be treated in its special re- 
lations to extempore speaking, under which ex- 
pression is included all forms of delivery, except 
those in which the discourse is fully written out, 
and spoken either from memory or manuscript. 
In this case, the more full and complete our mas- 
tery of the subject-matter of discourse, the more 
fruitful as a source of power in elocution does it 
become. 






Mastery of the Subject. 117 



§ 61. The necessity of full preparation beforehand is evinced 
from the number, complexity and difficulty of the sub- 
processes, which must be carried on simultaneously in 
strictly impromptu speaking. 

1. The number and complexity of these processes is 
almost incredible. 

When called suddenly to address an audience, 
without any previous preparation, the speaker, 
whilst rising slowly to his feet, must select his sub- 
ject, and determine in his own mind the object 
which he aims to effect. These prerequisites will 
commonly be suggested by the occasion, and hence 
will demand but little reflection. At the same 
time, he must fix upon a topic for his introduction, 
and construct his first sentence. Whilst delivering 
this as slowly as possible, in order to gain time, he 
must forecast, to some extent at least, his next sen- 
tence. Thus making his way slowly through his 
introduction, he must be occupied also in shaping 
his proposition, analyzing his subject, and arrang- 
ing by co-ordination and subordination, the princi- 
pal heads, and secondary topics of his whole dis- 
course ; and all this, with strict reference to the 
object which he aims to accomplish. If he succeed 
in doing this by the time he comes up to the enun- 
ciation of his proposition, he may feel himself com- 
paratively safe for a good speech. During the 
discussion, whilst delivering each sentence, he must 
construct the next, and so with the successive para- 
graphs. At the same time, he must select his 



118 The Sources of Poweil 

words, and must keep his mind running on ahead, 
correcting defects in his analysis, perfecting the 
arrangement of his topics, and forecasting his per- 
oration. Simultaneously he must be more or less 
engaged in studying the audience, and in efforts 
to fix their attention, and enlist their sympathies. 
Now to carry on all these processes at one. and the 
same time, even if there were nothing else to do, 
would seem to be well-nigh impossible. Yet such 
is the prodigious activity of the mind, under the 
stimulus and excitement of this kind of speaking, 
that, wherever it is highly successful, they are all, 
and many more, carried on as sub-processes, for 
the most part unconsciously, in strict subordination 
to the principal or leading operations, which prop- 
erly belong to the delivery or expression of the 
thoughts and sentiments. 

2. The difficulty of carrying on all these sub-pro- 
cesses as such at tJw same time, necessitates preparation 
beforehand, wJierever this is possible, in order to relieve 
the mind. 

The preceding analysis exhibits the toil and 
labor which a good speaker, in strictly impromptu 
discourse, instinctively undergoes to possess him- 
self, as much as possible, with the knowledge of 
what he is to say, before he comes actually to say 
it. But the difficulty of carrying on, as sub-pro- 
cesses, all these laborious operations of invention, 
arrangement and style, and many others, and of 
suppressing all manifestation of them, when the 
whole burden of them is thrown upon the mind at 



Mastery of the Subject. 119 

once, in the very moment of delivery, is very great. 
In every such case, their strong tendency is to be- 
come predominant in the consciousness of the 
speaker ; to overshadow and dwarf all those opera- 
tions which properly belong to delivery ; and con- 
sequently to manifest or express themselves in all 
the vices which enfeeble and cripple elocution. 
None but the most practised and accomplished 
rhetoricians and speakers, and these only in their 
happiest moods and most favorable circumstances, 
are able perfectly to overcome this difficulty, so as 
to speak, on the spur of the moment, with all the 
power of which they are capable. 

§ 62. Greater or less preparation is required according to 
circumstances, but as a general rule it should embrace 
a complete analysis of the discourse. 

The extent or thoroughness of the preparation 
required for extempore speaking, is greater or less, 
according as the mind of the speaker acts with 
more or less precision and rapidity. Too minute 
preparation resolves extempore into memoriter 
speaking, and instead of relieving the mind from 
the burden of sub-processes, only exchanges one 
class of them for another. The principle which 
will enable each one to decide this point for him- 
self, turns upon the question, how far he can re- 
lieve himself from the labors of invention and style, 
without loading his memory. As a general rule, 
however, the speaker, whenever it is possible, ought 
to prepare beforehand, either mentally, or with the 
aid of the pen, a complete analysis of his discourse, 



120 The Sources of Power. 

including the distinct statement of his proposition 
the arrangement by co-ordination of the genera] 
heads, and by subordination of the secondary top- 
ics, together with a general statement of the thought 
contained in each paragraph. Such an analysis, 
which Rhetoric teaches us to prepare, may either 
be carried in the memory without loading it, or it 
may be committed to paper, and referred to while 
speaking, without any serious disadvantage. With 
a fine memory, the former method is to be pre- 
ferred ; with a poor memory, the latter. Thus the 
speaker will be fully master of the subject-matter, 
and of the general drift and arrangement of his 
discourse beforehand. The detailed elaboratioi 
of the thoughts, the construction of the sentences 
in advance, and the selection of the words, should 
be left to the inspiration of delivery; which, after 
some facility has been gained by practice, will en- 
able him to carry on these operations strictly as 
sub-processes, unconsciously, and hence to suppress 
all their manifestations. 

§ G3. Such a mastery of the subject and discourse beforehand, 
relieves the mind from the most burdensome of the sub- 
processes, and from anxiety, and enables the speaker to 
employ his faculties in the proper work of delivery. 

1. It relieves the mind from the most burdensome of 
the processes of invention and arrangement 

These laborious intellectual operations, not being 
thrown upon the mind at the moment of speaking, 
cannot of course express themselves in the delivery ; 
which is thus purged at once from all its worst 



Mastery of the Subject. 121 

faults, and most easily besetting sins. The speaker 
is thus left free to throw all his faculties and powers 
into those forms of activity which properly belong 
to the expression of thought, and the expression of 
which constitutes good delivery (§ 22). 

2. It relieves the mind from the paralyzing effects of 
anxiety and dread of failure. 

Being assured of his mastery of the subject, and, 
in substance, of what he wishes to say, the speaker 
is of course relieved from all distressing anxiety 
upon that score, and is enabled to avail himself of 
all the advantages which flow from a rational con- 
fidence (§ 28). Otherwise this anxiety may, in 
this method of speaking, easily amount to a para- 
lyzing dread, and thus prove the most certain cause 
of entire failure. For such dread renders the 
speaker insensible to the power of the thoughts he 
wishes to express, and of the emotions which he 
would excite ; it draws off all his faculties from the 
work of speaking directly to the audience ; and it 
may even frustrate his power of invention. Un- 
der its influence he will be conscious of hardly 
anything but a desperate effort to find out what 
to say, and of paralyzing fear lest he should fail 
even in that. His delivery will consist of a painful 
expression of this and other such feelings, with all 
the vices of elocution therein implied. Even when 
the case may not be so bad as this, it will always 
approach it in the degree in which the processes of 
invention, and the dread of failure, predominate in 



122 The Sources of Power. 

the consciousness over those mental operations 
which properly belong to expression. 

§ 64. Such mastery of the subject and discourse enables the 
speaker to manage his time, pauses, pitch, transitions 
and force, in adaptation to his thoughts and sentiments, 
and to forecast the structure of his sentences. 

1. The right management of these elements of expres- 
sion is one of the chief excellences of speaking. 

The great power of elocution consists in the right 
management of these pauses, and transitions from 
one general or subordinate head to another ; and in 
the delivery of the several parts more or less rap- 
idly, and with greater or less force or stress of 
voice, with corresponding variations of pitch, accord- 
ing to the relative importance of each, and to the 
requirements of the ever- varying sentiment. All 
this depends obviously upon carrying in the mind 
at least some general knowledge of the drift and 
arrangement of the discourse, and of the character 
of the sentiments to be expressed. 

2. The want of this mastery of the subject occasions 
the following damaging faults. 

Without such knowledge of the general character 
of the discourse, the speaker is always liable to 
make his pauses too long between sentiments 
closely related, and too short between those more 
remotely separated ; also, to exert his voice unduly 
on a subordinate passage, and hence to fail in 
force and animation where these are most required. 
Not knowing beforehand where his special points 



Mastery of the Subject. 123 

and telling passages are to come, he finds it almost 
impossible to deliver them with that due mental refer- 
ence to their relative importance, and with that sig- 
nificant emphasis, which is no less essential to their 
proper effect, than the making of such points is to 
rhetorical power. The common effect of this, es- 
pecially when the speaker is at no loss for words, 
is that he runs into a monotonous rant, rushing on 
from one topic, or sentiment, or paragraph, to 
another, without any of those significant pauses, and 
returns to the key-note, or middle pitch of the 
voice, and to the moderate or normal movement, 
or degree of rapidity, which are indispensable to 
mark the close of one topic or paragraph, and the 
commencement of another, and to give effect to the 
transitions of the thought. 

3. Such faults have the effect of a pointless discourse. 
These vices of elocution are extremely common, 

and no less fatal. For where the distinction of 
ideas and sentiments is thus lost in one monotonous 
stream of sound, the effect is similar to that which 
is produced in rhetoric by a discourse without 
points ; that is, in which there is no distinction of 
general or subordinate heads, or topics, or para- 
graphs. In such speaking nothing stands out from 
the dead level ; all is " flat," and soon becomes in- 
tolerably " stale and unprofitable " to the audience. 

4. Such mastery of tJie subject enables the speaker to 
forecast tJw structure of his sentences, with respect to 
clearness, emphasis, and other elements of expression. 

(1.) Forecasting the sentence is a sub-process, 



124 The Sources of Power. 

more or less essential to the principal elements of 
expression. This forecasting of the structure of the 
sentence is properly a sub-process , but one which can 
hardly be carried on as such in extempore discourse, 
when the burden of all the operations which enter 
into it, is thrown upon the mind at the same time. 
Preparation beforehand is indispensable to the best 
success in it. Extempore speakers of the greatest 
power are sometimes wonderfully perfect in it, 
so that, whilst delivering one sentence, they are en- 
abled to elaborate the next, in all its details. Oth- 
ers are less perfect ; but probably it goes on in the 
minds of all, to a greater degree than we are com- 
monly aware. Something of it is certainly indis- 
pensable to anything like a sustained melody of 
speech, to right emphasis, and to almost all the 
other elements of expression. 

(2.) The want of it renders the speaking confused, 
and occasions false emphasis and intonation. For 
when the speaker has no conception beforehand 
of the structure of the sentence he is about to 
deliver, he knows not with what pitch, tones, or 
inflections to commence it, or to proceed with it, or 
to close it ; and he has nothing to guide him in 
withholding or placing his emphasis. He can hard- 
ly fail, therefore, to deliver his sentences in a per- 
plexed and unmelodious manner, and to beat the 
air with uncertain and unmeaning sounds. When 
the words upon which the emphasis ought to fall, 
are not anticipated by the speaker, it is impossible 
to deliver them with their due effect. 



Masteky of the Subject. 125 

(3.) A good speaker always foresees his emphatic 
words. As the accomplished rider, in order to obtain 
a better view of the wall or ditch before him, raises 
himself in his stirrups, then settles himself again in 
his saddle, reins in his horse, gathers the animal's 
hind legs well under his body, and at the precise 
moment lifts his head with the bridle, applies the 
whip or spur, and launches himself over the obsta- 
cle, amidst the cheers of his more timid companions 
—so the accomplished speaker looks ahead for his 
emphatic words, and, as he approaches them, draws 
in his breath, and gathers up all his forces, and, 
at the precise moment, flings - himself upon them, 
with all the impulse gained from the preceding 
restraint. A single word, spoken with such em- 
phasis, will sometimes thrill a whole assembly. 
But nothing of all this is possible, of course, when 
the structure of the sentence is not foreseen, and 
the emphatic words cannot be anticipated. 

§ 65. Extempore speaking is more favorable than either of 
the other methods, to animation or tiyacity, to the exer- 
cise of the sensibilities, to attention and sympathy, and 
to the consciousness of speaking directly to' the audience. 

It would seem that the vulgar prejudice, as it has 
been regarded, against reading sermons, and in 
favor of extempore preaching, is not altogether 
a prejudice, but is founded on sound elocution- 
ary reasons. For there can be little doubt that, 
with such preparation as has been indicated, extem- 
pore speaking is more favorable and conducive to 
good elocution, or power in delivery, than speaking 



126 The Sources of Power. 

either from manuscript or from memory. For al- 
though the sub-processes, in this method, seem to 
be more numerous and difficult than in either of 
the others, yet they are found by experience to be 
more manageable, and less damaging. The fol- 
lowing are some of the particulars in which it is 
more favorable to good delivery than either of the 
other methods. 

1. It is more conducive to animation or vivacity. 

It has been well observed that "the least ani- 
mated mode of delivering thought to others, is 
reading from a book the composition of another ; 
the next in order is reading one's own composition ; 
the next is delivering one's own composition from 
memory ; and the most animated of all is the utter- 
ing of one's own thoughts, as they rise fresh in his 
mind."* 

2. To tJie exercise of the sensibilities. 

When a thought comes fresh into the mind, and 
chooses, as it were, at the moment, its own words, 
the meaning of these words is more present to the 
mind of the speaker, and their power is more felt, , 
than when he recurs to them in the memory, or 
upon manuscript. In the same way, all the emo- 
tions in extempore speaking are more fresh and 
genial than when they are reproduced in the other 
methods. Hence " there is more natural warmth 
in the declamation, more earnestness in the address, 

* Hints on Extemporaneous Preaching, by Henry Ware, Jr., Professor of Pul- 
pit Eloquence and Pastoral Care, in Harvard University ; an admirable little 
work, now out of print, but which ought to be republished. 



Mastery of the Subject. 



127 



greater animation in the manner, more of the light- 
ing np of the soul in the countenance, and whole 
mien, more freedom and meaning in the gesture. 
The eye speaks, and the fingers speak, and when 
the orator is so excited as to forget everything but 
the matter on which his mind and feelings are 
acting, the whole body is affected, and helps to 
propagate his emotions to the audience." 

3. To the attention and sympathy of the audience. 
When the audience have the opportunity of 

following the thoughts of the speaker, as they 
germinate and spring up in his mind, and grow, and 
>ut forth their branches, leaves, blossoms and fruit, 
they feel an interest in the whole process,which they 
cannot feel when they know that everything has 
been " cut and dried " beforehand. And this interest 
of the audience reacts, as we have seen, by sympa- 
thy, to quicken all his faculties, and clothe his 
delivery with power. 

4. To the conciousness of speaking directly to the 
audience. 

When the thoughts of the speaker thus originate, 
and take on their peculiar forms, in presence of the 
audience, they naturally adapt themselves to the 
varying moods and states of mind, and to the dif- 
ferent degrees of excitement, manifested by the 
audience, much more perfectly than is possible when 
they have all been written out beforehand. Hence 
the style in extempore speaking is commonly less 
abstract and involved, more simple and direct, than 
in other kinds. This directness of style nat- 



128 The Sources of Power. 

urally prompts to directness of speaking. The 
speaker more easily maintains himself in the con- 
ciousness of speaking directly to the people before 
him, and secures all the benefits which flow from 
this source of power in delivery. 



CHAPTEE VIII. 

FACILITY OF REMEMBERING IN MEMORITER DELIVERY. 

§ 66. A good memory is a source of power in all the methods 
of delivery, but most of all in memoriter speaking:. 

Facility of recalling what has been committed 
to memory, is necessary to the greatest power of 
elocution, in all the different methods of delivery. 
In the words of Quintihan, " it is not without rea- 
son that the memory has been called, the treasury 
of eloquence." But its most important relations, 
of course, are those which it bears to memoriter 
speaking, in which the whole discourse is delivered 
in the very words in which it has been prepared be- 
forehand. In this method of delivery, it is indis- 
pensable that the discourse be so perfectly com- 
mitted that it can be remembered without con- 
scious effort ; that every word shall seem to come 
of itself, in its proper place and connection. This 
might seem to be sufficiently evident, if the w^ant 
of due attention to it were not extremely prevalent, 
and the cause of failure to many. It is necessary, 
therefore, to explain the influence of this source of 
power by applying again, in a manner precisely 
similar to that already employed in the case of ex- 
tempore speaking, the fundamental principles of 
this art, as laid down in §§ 21 — 23. 



130 The Sources of Power. 

§ 67. The sub-process of remembering and the fear of for- 
getting, in this method of speaking, when they predomi- 
nate, render other sources of power unavailable, and the 
speaking consists of the expression of these mental opera- 
tions. 

1. The predominance of these sub-processes is more 
damaging to elocution than those of invention and style. 

In this method of speaking the sub-processes, 
properly so called, are simply those of remember- 
ing what has been committed to memory. But in 
addition to these, which are extremely damaging 
when they become predominant in the conscious- 
ness of the speaker, from the fact that his speech 
has been imperfectly committed, he has to deal 
with the far more deleterious influence of anxiety, 
and dread of forgetting what he wishes to say. 
These influences are similar in their effects upon 
the mental state of the speaker, and upon his elo- 
cution, to those of invention and style, and of the 
dread of failure in finding out what to say, in ex- 
tempore speaking. Commonly, however, they are 
much more enfeebling to the expression, for the 
reason that these sub-processes are more incompat- 
ible with the proper work of delivery. 

2. TJie predominant of these sub-processes in the 
consciousness of the speaker, renders other sources of 
poiver unavailable. 

Evidently when the speech has been imperfectly 
committed, or is remembered with difficulty, all the 
faculties of the speaker must be withdrawn from 
the proper work of delivery, that of speaking di- 
rectly to the audience, and concentrated upon the 



Facility of Eemembeeing. 131 

mental toil of remembering what he has to say. 
Consequently he loses sight of the audience, and 
of the object which he aims to accomplish in their 
minds, and the desire to accomplish it ceases to be 
operative. He may have the best speech in the 
world, the greatest power of thought, and the most 
moving sentiments; but he cannot think of the 
matter of his discourse, because he is wholly occu- 
pied with the forms and sounds of the words which 
he is mentally struggling to lay hold of, and which 
threaten every moment to escape from his grasp. 
In this mental state the appropriate exercise of the 
sensibilities is paralyzed. He cannot feel the pow- 
er of his thoughts, nor of the emotions which he 
wishes to communicate and excite in the audience, 
nor make the least effort to engage their attention 
or sympathy. He can exert no intellectual faculty 
but the memory. He can feel nothing but a horror 
of forgetting his speech, which enfeebles the mem- 
ory itself, and often ensures the result which is 
most feared ; — by overstrained effort to pump up 
the words into his mind, the pump itself often 
breaks down. 

3. It renders the speaking the expression of the men- 
tal operations of remembering, and of the dread of for- 
getting. 

When the speech, is imperfectly committed, or 
remembered with difficulty, these are the mental 
states which predominate in the consciousness of 
the speaker, and which his speaking really ex- 
presses, with all the vices of elocution which this 
implies. The people before the speaker, being 



132 The Soueces oe Power. 

pushed out of mind, are pushed out of sight. His 
eye takes no note of their countenances, and can- 
not be employed in fixing their attention. It wan- 
ders around the room, or up to the ceiling, as if 
looking for something that it cannot find, or it is 
closed. In any case it loses all power of appro- 
priate expression. Often it seems to be turned in- 
wards, as if looking into the back of the head, in 
search of the words which the speaker is laboring 
to recall. In this case the countenance becomes 
so ludicrous that it makes one think of the words 
of a great comic writer, " Did you ever pick the 
lock of a cupboard to steal a bottle of wine? and 
did you ever think of the expression of your face 
while you were doing it?" In like manner, all 
the motions of the hands, arms and body, all the 
tones, inflections, articulation and emphasis, take 
on their peculiar forms, not from the mental opera- 
tions which properly belong to speaking, but from 
these sub-processes ; which ought not to manifest 
themselves at all, but which, being now the lead- 
ing operations of the speaker's mind, it is impossi- 
ble to suppress. All that he succeeds in expressing, 
and impressing upon the audience, is the mental 
toil of remembering words without meaning to him- 
self, consequently without meaning to those who 
hear Mm ; together with his torment of anxiety, and 
dread of forgetting what he wishes to say, and of 
breaking down in his discourse. The vices of elo- 
cution which are inseparable from this cause, it is 
not possible to enumerate, much less to describe. 



Facility of Eemembebing. 133 

They are nearly all that are possible, and all in 
their most aggravated forms. 

4. It renders the training and practice of the art 
often ineffectual and injurious. 

Among the worst consequences of the predomi- 
nance of these mental states, is that it renders a 
great deal of the training and practice of this art, 
not only ineffectual for good, but often productive 
of great harm. For where the teacher allows im- 
perfectly committed exercises to be performed, all 
these vices of elocution are cultivated, instead of 
being corrected; and the faculty of speaking is 
dwarfed, instead of being developed. Prompting 
therefore ought never to be allowed. In all cases 
where the speaker cannot do without it, it would be 
far better not to speak at all. For this reason such 
exercises should be very short. On many other ac- 
counts also, a short speech is much better for train- 
ing purposes than a long one. 

§ 68. Tlie influence of tiiis source of power upon the speaker 
and upon his delivery, is to render the other sources of 
power available, and to render the speaking- expressive of 
those mental states which properly belong to delivery. 

1. It renders the other sources of power available. 

By perfect facility of remembering, the speaker is 
relieved from all conscious effort of memory, and 
from the dread of forgetting what he wishes to 
say ; and in this method of speaking, the processes 
of invention and style have no place. Consequently 
he is left free to throw all his faculties into the 



13 L The Sources of Power. 

proper work of delivery. He can grasp in his mind 
the object which he aims to accomplish, and feel 
the desire of accomplishing it ; he can hold himself 
in the mental state of speaking directly to the audi- 
ence, with this object in view ; and he can be moved 
himself with the power of the thoughts which he 
has to express, and of the emotions and passions 
which he wishes to excite. The natural now of 
his sensibilities is unobstructed, and his mind is 
open to receive the whole volume of the sympa- 
thies of the audience, as it rolls in upon him. These, 
and in fact all other sources of power which are not 
inconsistent with this method of spealdng, are thus 
rendered fully available. 

2. It renders the speaking expressive of those mental 
states luliich properly belong to delivery. 

The mental operations of remembering, being 
now carried on strictly as sub-processes, and so 
confidently as to give relief from anxiety and fear, 
have no tendency to manifest themselves in the 
delivery, which thus purges itself from the vices 
which they otherwise produce : whilst those opera- 
tions which properly belong to the expression of 
thought, being predominant in the consciousness of 
the speaker, naturally express themselves ; the 
speaking consists in the expression of them, and 
thus clothes itself with power. The speaker, having 
no occasion to withdraw his eye from the audience, 
even for a moment, can employ all its mysterious 
power to fix their attention, and to engage their 
sympathy. All his gestures, tones, inflections, 



Facility of Kemembering. 135 

articulation and emphasis, all the changes of force, 
pitch and time, in a word, all the elements of ex- 
pression are now formed and governed by the 
sentiments which he has to express. Having the 
whole speech in his mind, he knows the relations 
of the several heads, topics and paragraphs to 
each other, and is thus enabled to graduate the 
degrees of force, pitch and rapidity of movement 
appropriately to every part ; to return to the key- 
note and initial movement, as often as may be re- 
quired, and to manage his pauses and transitions 
so as to produce their true and proper effect. And 
foreseeing the structure of every sentence, when 
he begins to speak it, he finds it easy to distribute 
his emphasis aright, and to deliver it in the most 
effective manner. 



§ 69. Memoriter speaking was the favorite method of the 
ancient orators, but, with a common memory, it is not so 
favorable to power in delivery as extempore discourse. 

Apart from experience, it would seem that, with 
due attention to its proper source of power, this 
method of speaking ought to be the most favorable 
of all to a good delivery. It is certain that it was 
the favorite method of the ancient orators ; and it 
seems to have contributed much to their success in 
that forensic and deliberative eloquence, in which 
they have never been surpassed. But experience 
does not prove that Ihis is the best method, but 
rather, except where the memory is naturally very 
superior, or has been very highly cultivated, that 



136 The Sources of Power. 

the sub-processes in this method are more unman- 
ageable, and more incompatible with expression, 
than those of extempore speaking. Notwithstand- 
ing, its advantages are such that whoever aspires to 
become an orator, will do well to make full proof 
of his ability to follow it. If he should find his 
talents ill-adapted to extempore discourse, and can, 
by the most laborious culture, so develop and 
strengthen his memory that it will sustain him in 
this method, he will surely reap an abundant re- 
ward. It will be more likely to conduct such a man 
to excellence than any other. But if, after full 
proof of his memory, he should still find it inade- 
quate, he can then apply himself to speaking from 
manuscript, which yet remains to be considered. 

§ 70. The memory is capable of great development by exer- 
cise, of which we have many striking* examples. 

There is no faculty of the mind more susceptible 
of cultivation and improvement, and none which suf- 
fers more from neglect, than the memory. The an- 
cient orators cultivated it to such a degree of excel- 
lence as is unknown, and almost inconceivable to us. 
Mithridates, king of Pontus, Who held the Roman 
conquests in check for thirty years, in the first cen- 
tury before the Christian era, could talk with the 
people of twenty-seven nations under his govern- 
ment, in all their different languages. Quintilian 
gives us a number of instances of prodigious mem- 
ory. Cicero informs us that Crassus, to whom he 
gives the palm of Eoman eloquence, would some- 



Facility of Eememberlng. 137 

times dictate as many as six different parts of the 
same argument to six clerks at the same time, and 
then go immediately into court, and deliver the 
whole, without once looking at his papers. In the 
attainment of such results, they seem to have relied 
to some extent upon systems of artificial mnemonics, 
based upon the principle of the association of ideas, 
which, however, were not much approved of by some 
of their best writers, and which do not seem to be 
well adapted to our mental habits. No doubt, the 
most effectual means of cultivating this faculty, is to 
exercise it systematically in committing to memory 
the finest passages of eloquence. In committing 
our own discourses, we are greatly aided by such an 
analysis and arrangement as exhibits the closest 
logical connection between the thoughts. 



CHAPTER IX. 

FAMILIARITY WITH THE MANUSCRIPT. 

§ 71. The importance of this source of power arises from the 
peculiar character of the sub-processes in speaking from 
manuscript. 

This source of power refers exclusively to the 
method of speaking in which the speech is all writ- 
ten out beforehand, and read or spoken from the 
manuscript, either held in the hand, or lying under 
the eye of the speaker. Its importance arises from 
the fact that this method of speaking is one in such 
common use, especially among clergymen • and from 
the peculiar character and damaging effect of the 
sub-processes, whenever these become predominant 
in the consciousness of the speaker. In order to 
exhibit this latter point it will be necessary to 
make a third application of the fundamental prin- 
ciples laid down in §§ 21 — 23, precisely similar to 
those which have been made in extempore and 
memoriter speaking. 

§ 72. The sub-processes in reading, and in speaking from 
manuscript, are the reverse of expression. 

Beading, and speaking from manuscript, are so 
nearly allied, and the sub-processes in the two cases 



Familiarity with the Manusceipt. 139 

differ so little, and the light they throw upon each 
other is so important, that they require to be treated 
together. For in both the sub-processes are those 
of taking in the sense of the manuscript, or printed 
page, through the eye ; and these processes are the 
reverse of those which belong to the giving out of 
the sense by the voice, and to the impressing of the 
thought and sentiment upon other minds. The 
mental operations of giving out, and of taking in 
the sense, are in the highest degree incompatible 
with each other. Certainly they cannot both go on 
together as leading states of the same mind ; one or 
the other must fall into the rank of a sub-process. 
At least three of those leading states or mental 
operations, the expression of which constitutes good 
delivery (§ 22), namely, (a) the consciousness of 
speaking directly to the audience, (b) with the desire 
of accomplishing a given object, (c) which object is 
held firmly in the grasp of the mind, are diametric- 
ally opposed to the mental operations of taking in the 
sense through the eye. This opposition and incom- 
patibility between these two classes of mental oper- 
ations, both of which have to be carried on simul- 
taneously, exhibits the great difficulty to be over- 
come in speaking from manuscript. 

§73. Reading, in which the sub-processes exercise a legiti- 
mate influence, is a more subdued, and a more difficult 
form of elocution than speaking. 

1. The distinction between reading and speaking lias 
never been precisely determined. 



140 The Sources of Power. 

Go the, somewhere in Wilhelm Meister, has re- 
marked that ' the limits between reading and speak- 
ing are very narrow, 5 but nowhere, it is believed, 
has he attempted to define them. In practice the 
two are often confounded. Speaking from manu- 
script commonly takes the form of a poor kind of 
reading, whilst reading not unfrequently merges in 
a wretched attempt at declamation. But the prin- 
ciples maintained in these Sources of Power, with 
respect to leading mental operations and sub-pro- 
cesses, will enable us to determine this point, and 
to understand precisely wherein these two forms of 
elocution differ from each other. 

2. Beading is a more subdued and quiet, speaking a 
more full and demonstrative form of elocution. 

This difference will be evident at once to any one 
who will compare the signs which each employs. For 
in reading, the tones are naturally less full and strong, 
the range of pitch and inflection is less extended, 
there is less variation in time and force, the articula- 
tion is less hard and sharp, the emphasis is less de- 
cided, and the gesture, if any be allowed, is less 
marked and striking, than in speaking. A reader 
in whom this quiet and subdued manner is wanting, 
who runs his reading into declamation, exhibits a 
want of taste, culture and refinement; whilst a 
speaker who simply reads his discourse, can exert 
but little power to impress his sentiments, or to in- 
flame the audience with the emotions and passions 
which his words may be intended to express. 



Familiarity with the Manuscript. 141 

3. The reason of this difference is that in reading, tlie 
sub-processes legitimately exercise a subduing influence, 
whilst in speaking, they require to be wholly suppressed. 

For it will be observed that in reading, we deliver 
the sentiments professedly as taking them in through 
the eye at the time, as gathering and reproducing 
them from the written or printed page before us ; but 
in speaking, we deliver them as immediately our own, 
as welling up from within our own minds. Conse- 
quently in the former case, the elocution is legitimate- 
ly affected and modified by the mental operations of 
taking in the sense, in which we are professedly en- 
gaged ; whilst in the latter, no such influence or 
effect can be allowed. Good reading requires that 
these operations should not be wholly suppressed, 
but should exert a certain modifying influence upon 
the expression ; whilst it is essential to good speak- 
ing that they should exert no influence upon the ex- 
pression, but should be wholly suppressed. Now, 
as we have seen, these mental operations of taking 
in the sense through the eye, are precisely the reverse 
of those which belong to giving it out, and impress- 

Iing it upon others ; consequently the influence of 
these reverse mental operations legitimately affects 
the elocution in reading, as a negative quantity af- 
fects a positive one ; that is, it reduces it from a more 
to a less full and demonstrative form of delivery. It 
is under this subduing influence that, in good read- 
ing, the tones are less full, the inflections less ex- 
tended, the articulation less sharp and hard, the 
pitch, force and time less varied, the emphasis less 



142 The Sources of Power. 

pronounced, and the gesture less abundant, than in 
good speaking. 

4. Good reading is a more difficult form of elocu- 
tion than good speaking. 

We should anticipate that this would be the case 
from the nature of the distinction between reading 
and speaking ; and this anticipation is confirmed by 
all experience and observation. To read well any 
passage or author with which we are wholly unac- 
quainted, is confessedly a very difficult thing. Hence 
we find many good speakers, for one good reader. 
The reason of this is the direct opposition and incom- 
patibility between the mental operations of taking 
in the sense, and those of giving it out, at the same 
time. For although the former in reading do legit- 
imately affect and modify the elocution, yet even in 
this case, if they become predominant in the con- 
sciousness of the reader, so as to overshadow and en- 
feeble the latter, the elocution is necessarily marred, 
or spoiled. The tendency to this is obviated, in 
some degree, by the great familiarity we attain with 
the forms, meanings and sounds of printed words, 
and by the wondrous perspicuity of the printed page, 
from which we are enabled to take in the sense, as 
the eye passes over it, with but little conscious atten- 
tion or effort. In this way, the leading mental ope- 
rations in good reading, continue to be those of giv- 
ing out, rather than those of taking in the sense. A 
good reader, however, never undertakes to read in 
public a passage with which he is wholly unac- 
quainted, except from necessity ; nor then does he 



Familiarity with the Manuscript. 143 

ever expect to do justice to himself, or his author. 
He always tries to familiarize his mind beforehand 
with the sentiments and words, in order to relieve 
himself as much as possible from the operations of 
taking in the sense, that he may be enabled to carry 
on these operations, in so far as they are indispensa- 
ble, mostly as sub-processes, whilst his faculties are 
chiefly employed in the proper work of expression. 

$ 74. The degree of familiarity with the manuscript should 
be such as to enable the speaker to carry on all the oper- 
ations of taking in the sense as sub-processes. 

In order to speak well from manuscript, it is indis- 
pensable that the mental operations of taking in the 
sense through the eye, should be suppressed alto- 
gether. Consequently much greater familiarity with 
the manuscript is required in this method of speak- 
ing, than with the printed page or manuscript in 
reading. In fact it must be such as to enable the 
speaker to carry on all these operations strictly as 
sub-processes, and for the most part unconsciously. 
If they become at all prominent in the conscious- 
ness, they cannot fail to manifest themselves in all the 
vices of elocution, to which this method of speaking 
is liable. Hence the speaker should never fail to 
make himself as familiar as possible, by previous 
study, with the matter of his discourse., including its 
structure, drift and general arrangement, so that the 
relations of the several parts to each other, and to 
the whole, may be carried in his mind. Also the 
first words of each general head, topic, paragraph 
and sentence, should be made so familiar in its rela- 



144 The Sources of Power. 

tions to what follows, as to suggest its subject, ob- 
ject and principal thoughts. By a single uncon- 
scious glance at the first words of any sentence, the 
speaker should be able to possess himself of the 
whole of it, as nearly as possible in the words in 
which it is written. In the degree in which the 
speaker neglects this previous study, and his famil- 
iarity with his manuscript falls short of what is here 
required, in any of these particulars, will his deliv- 
ery be enfeebled. 

§ 75. The influence of such familiarity with the manuscript 
enables the speaker to suppress the sub-processes, and to 
avail himself of all the other sources of power. 

This influence is similar to that of the last two 
sources of power, in the methods of speaking to 
which they respectively apply. 

1. It enables tlte speaker to suppress the sub-processes. 

By an adequate familiarity with the manuscript, 
and where a good degree of facility in this method 
of speaking has been acquired, all the mental opera- 
tions of taking in the sense through the eye, are so 
reduced that they can be carried on strictly as sub- 
processes, of which the speaker is no more conscious 
than he is of standing on his feet, or changing his po- 
sition, or of the motions of his lungs or diaphragm. 
He does not know when he turns the leaves of his 
manuscript, nor hardly that he has it before him. 
His glances at it are so momentary that they scarce- 
ly make a deeper impression upon his mind than the 
nictation of his eyelids. He is as unconscious of the 



Familiaeity with the Manusceipt. 145 

use he makes of it as the skillful writer is of the man- 
ner of holding his pen, or the accomplished musician 
of fingering the keys of his instrument. Hence these 
mental operations are all suppressed ; they have lit- 
tle or no tendency to express themselves in mar- 
ring the delivery. 

2. It enables him to avail himself of tlie otlier sources 
of power. 

Being fully released from the embarrassment of 
these sub-processes, the speaker is enabled to throw 
all his faculties into the proper work of delivery. 
There is nothing to hinder him from entering, in the 
fullest manner, into the sentiments he has to express, 
nor to impede the flow of the emotions which the 
discourse, or the occasion, or the audience may be 
adapted to inspire. With only a momentary and 
unconscious reference to the manuscript, his eye and 
countenance are sufficiently free to exert their mys- 
terious powers upon the audience, and to secure 
their attention and sympathy ; whilst, in the full con- 
sciousness of speaking directly to them, he grasps 
them with his mind, and holds them up to the object 
which he aims to accomplish. Thus all the signs 
which he employs, both of voice and gesture, natu- 
rally take on their true forms, and the speaking is 
clothed with power. 

§ 76. The neglect of this source of power renders all others 
unavailable, and renders the speaking; the reverse of 
true expression. 

The consequences of neglecting this source of pow- 
er are similar, in most respects, to those which have 



146 The Sources of Power. 

been already exhibited, in the two preceding chap- 
ters ; yet in one particular, at least, they are more 
damaging to elocution than any others. 

1. It renders all other sources of power unavailable. 
For where the previous study of the manuscript 

is neglected, the mental operations of taking in the 
sense through the eye, necessarily become predomi- 
nant in the consciousness of the speaker ; in which 
case, they either displace from the mind altogether, 
or degrade to a subordinate character, all those op- 
erations which essentially belong to the giving out, 
or expression of thought, and to impressing it upon 
other minds. Having his faculties pre-occupied, 
after a principal manner, with what ought to be 
wholly an unconscious sub-process, the speaker is 
unable to employ them in the proper work of deliv- 
ery. Thus earnestness in speaking directly to the 
audience, for the accomplishment of his object, 
together with all the power which this gives to elo- 
cution, becomes impossible. The speaker cannot 
hold before his mind the object of speaking, nor feel 
the desire to accomplish it, nor be sensible of the 
power of the thoughts which he has to express ; nor 
is his mind susceptible of sympathy with the audi- 
ence, nor indeed of any other emotion which gives 
power to delivery. For there is no proper exercise 
of the emotional nature which corresponds to, or is 
consistent with the intellectual operation of spelling 
out the sense of a manuscript. 

2. It refers the spealdng the reverse of true expres- 
sion. 

(1.) This statement requires some qualification, 



Familiarity with the Manuscript. 147 

although its significance is not likely to be overesti- 
mated. For inasmuch as the mere utterance of the 
voice, and the pronunciation of words, in whatever 
manner, do necessarily imply something of the na- 
ture of speaking, these acts can never become in an 
absolute — but they do become in a qualified sense, 
the reverse, or opposite of expression. 

(2.) The reason is that the leading mental opera- 
tions are the reverse of those which belong to expres- 
sion. We have seen that the mental operations of 
taking in the sense through the eye, are the reverse of 
those which belong to giving it out, and impressing it 
upon other minds. Consequently, when the previous 
study of the manuscript is neglected, and these re- 
verse operations become predominant in the con- 
sciousness of the speaker — that is, when he is wholly 
or chiefly occupied with the labor of transferring 
the sense of the words from the manuscript to his 
own mind — the speaking becomes chiefly expressive 
of this leading mental state ; and hence it not only 
loses all proper adaptation to the communication of 
thought and feeling to other minds, but it actually 
consists, for the most part, of signs which are the 
reverse of expression. 

(3.) This reason applies to all the signs employed. 
Hence all the phenomena of voice and gesture are 
not merely subdued, as in reading, where these re- 
verse processes, from the greater plainness of the 
printed page, and other facilities, are still carried on 
subordinately (§ 73 — 4), but they actually become, in 
their characteristic elements, the reverse of all true 
expression. The eye, of course, is withdrawn from 



148 The Sources of Power. 

the audience, and confined to the manuscript, which 
signifies that the mind of the speaker is withdrawn 
from them, and from the work of speaking to them, 
and is otherwise employed. The expression of the 
countenance, when compared with the lighting up 
and glow of the features in eloquent delivery, be- 
comes so absurd that Hogarth has chosen it for the 
subject of one of his masterly pictures, namely, 
that of the preacher spelling out the sense of his 
manuscript to a snoring congregation. In like man- 
ner, the motions of the hands, arms and body, all the 
gestures, and all the tones, inflections, articulations, 
and changes of time, pitch, force and movement, be- 
come, to a great degree, the reverse of those of an 
overflowing mind and heart, pouring out its fullness 
of thought and feeling, into the bosoms of an atten- 
tive and sympathizing audience. 

(4.) The effect is like that of saying the Lord's 
Prayer backwards. Where these reverse pro- 
cesses thus become predominant in the conscious- 
ness of the speaker, their effect upon the speaking, 
and upon the audience, is very much like that 
of reading a passage of Shakspeare backwards ; 
and in the pulpit, it may be compared to that 
of saying the Lord's Prayer backwards — a spe- 
cies of conjuring with sacred words, which, ac- 
cording to a popular superstition, has power to 
raise the devil. It is mournful to think how much 
of what is called preaching, is thus the reverse of all 
true expression. And where the case is not actually 
so bad as this, it is because these reverse processes 
do not become so prominent as to supersede all oth- 



Familiarity with the Manuscript. 149 

ers, but are themselves held in check and modified 
by some remaining consciousness in the speaker, 
that he is yet talking to people, to effect some object 
in their minds. 

§ 77. The chief temptation to neglect this source of power, 
which requires to be guarded against, is the security 
which the speaker derives from the nianuscrfpt. 

1. This temptation is very general and difficult to re- 
sist. 

The one great and sore temptation to neglect the 
previous study of the manuscript, which many speak- 
ers find themselves unable to resist, and which some- 
times overcomes probably the best, arises from the 
very thing which gives this method of speaking its 
chief advantage, namely, that security which the 
speaker feels, with respect to the matter of his dis- 
course, that he shall be able to reproduce it in some 
form, when he knows that he shall have it lying be- 
fore him in manuscript, at the moment of delivery. 
It is necessary to guard against this temptation with 
the utmost vigilance, in order to avoid the most 
shameful failure, and in order to speak, in this meth- 
od of delivery, with anything worthy of the name of 
power. 

2. Moral motives to resist it ought to be sufficient with 
clergymen. 

With all ministers of the gospel who speak from 
manuscript, the moral obligation which rests upon 
them, to neglect nothing which can aid them in im- 
pressing upon the people the great and precious 
truths which the Lord has put into then- mouths, 



150 The Sources of Poweb. 

ought of itself to be sufficient to enable them to re- 
sist, this temptation. For where this obligation is 
felt, and the importance of this source of power is 
duly appreciated, there is no difficulty. AH that is 
required is a little time and labor, which grows less 
and less with every successive discourse. It would 
be easy to name examples of those who seem never 
to have neglected this source of power, and who 
have derived from it a rich reward of elocutionary 
power ; so that from then delivery, one could hard- 
ly perceive that they had any manuscript before 
them, otherwise than from seeing them turn the 
leaves. But if the foregoing considerations should 
have no influence to remedy the enormous evil which 
arises from the prevalent neglect of this source of 
power, the church and the cause of Christ must con- 
tinue to suffer, until a generation arises who shall 
have received from elocutionary training a better 
appreciation of its importance, or who shall be more 
faithful to their moral obligations. 

§ 78. The comparative advantages of this method of speaking 
are, that it relieves the mind from the laborious sub-pro- 
cesses of both the others, and enables the speaker, with 
due attention to its source of power, to employ all his 
faculties in the proper work of delivery. 

When the requisite degree of familiarity with the 
manuscript is secured, this method of speaking is 
nearly as favorable to power in delivery as either of 
the others. Indeed there can be little doubt that, 
for all who have not either the very highest endow- 
ments of memory, or at least a good faculty of ex- 



Familiarity with the Manuscript. 151 

tempore speaking, it is the best of the three. For 
it relieves the mind from all painful efforts of mem- 
ory, and from the dread of forgetting, which are lia- 
ble to prove so damaging in memoriter speaking ; 
and from the vast labor of invention, arrangement 
and style, together with all the anxieties and fears 
to which these give rise, and which load the mind 
and delivery in extempore discourse. The perfect 
security which the speaker feels, when he has all 
that he wishes to say plainly written out before him, 
enables him to throw all his faculties and powers 
into the proper work of delivery. The sole difficul- 
ty which he has to overcome, is the necessity of 
some slight reference to his manuscript, which, with 
the requisite study of it beforehand, is, as we have 
seen, hardly any impediment. Nor will such a use 
of the manuscript give any offence to a moderately 
intelligent audience, after they have become a little 
accustomed to it. For when the speaker refers to 
it unconsciously, the audience soon cease to notice 
that he has any manuscript before him. 

§ 79. A plain manuscript is of great importance in this 
method of speaking. 

In order to facilitate the free and unconscious use 
of the manuscript, and to render this source of pow- 
er available in the highest degree, it is evident that 
the discourse should always be written on the best 
of paper, and in the plainest chirography. For a 
plain and pure and perspicuous manuscript, not only 
facilitates greatly the mental operations of catching 



152 The Sources o$ Power. 

the sense by a momentary and unconscious glance, 
but also it encourages the esthetic feeling of the 
speaker, and makes it easier for him to feel confi- 
dence in what he has to say, in a similar way, 
though in a less degree, that beautiful paper and 
print enhances the beauty of the thoughts which are 
thus, as it were, appropriately dressed and adorned. 
On the other hand, a blurred, or blotted, or confused 
manuscript greatly increases the difficulty of these 
mental operations ; and when the speaker relies up- 
on gathering the sense of such a manuscript at the 
moment of delivery, he is liable to hesitate, and be- 
come puzzled, so that he must repeat the preceding 
words before he can succeed in spelling out his own 
meaning. What effect all this must have upon his 
elocution, and upon the audience, is known to those 
who have been bored by it, but which it is much 
easier to imagine than to describe. The only won- 
der is, that it does not have the effect ascribed to 
saying the Lord's Prayer backwards. It is well 
worth while therefore to rewrite a discourse, rather 
than to deliver it from a poor manuscript. Many a 
good sermon has been laboriously rewritten, chiefly 
for the purpose of purifying and perfecting the 
manuscript, in order to its more effective delivery. 






CHAPTEE X. 

VITALITY, FAVORABLE MOODS, AND PHYSICAL KEGIMEN. 
§ 80. Favorable moods are of great importance in delivery. 

All speakers have experience of favorable and un- 
favorable moods, which exert the greatest influence 
upon their elocution. So great is this influence 
that, after some experience, a good speaker would 
rather appear before an audience in a favorable 
mood with a feeble discourse, than in an unfavor- 
able one with the best discourse he can possibly pre- 
pare. For in the former case, he is conscious of a 
certain inward fullness, from which his thoughts and 
feelings seem to overflow, like water from a full res- 
ervoir ; in the latter, his mental and bodily action is 
feeble and slow, accompanied with labor and fatigue ; 
in a favorable mood, he moves through his discourse 
as a stately ship through the water, when her sails 
are all filled with the favoring gale ; in an unfavor- 
able mood, he is like the same ship windbound, and 
thumping upon the shoals. 

§ 81. The favorable mood is chiefly dependent upon vitality. 

It is therefore a question of very great importance, 
how shall the speaker be enabled to command the 



154 The Sources of Power. 

favorable mood for each occasion of speaking ? In 
order to answer this question, it is necessary to state 
that the favorable mood depends chiefly upon the 
condition and action of the vital forces of the phy- 
sical organism. There is, indeed, a vitality of the 
intellect, of the sensibility, and of the will, as well as 
of the physical organism, but these cannot be 
regarded as independent of each other. For elocu- 
tionary purposes, they may all be conceived of as 
different modes of action, or forms of manifestation, 
of the one principle of life, health, strength and en- 
ergy of body and mind. Now a full and healthy 
action of the vital forces will commonly, with due 
attention to regimen, enable the speaker to com- 
mand the favorable mood for each occasion of speak- 
ing ; whilst a defective, or exhausted, or obstructed 
vitality, arising from ill health, mental distress, 
fatigue, loss of sleep, excess in eating or drinking, 
or any other cause, will produce the unfavorable 
mood, and unfit the speaker for his work, just as in 
any other case which requires the most strenuous 
exertion of all the faculties and powers of body and 
mind. 

§ 82. A full vitality imparts to the voice its most effective 
qualities and powers, and a certain fullness and vivacity to 
the speaking- ; the want of it enfeebles the delivery in a 
corresponding* manner. 

A full and healthy action of the vital forces is 
almost indispensable to these excellences of speak- 
ing, although it will not always secure them without 
the proper regimen. Its natural tendency is to 

these results. 



Vitality and Physical Regimen. 155 

1. It imparts to the voice its most effective qualities 
and powers. 

Strength, purity, depth, compass and flexibility of 
voice are essential elements of power in delivery; 
and these depend upon a full and healthy vitality in 
the speaker, more perhaps than upon anything else. 
For although sometimes the most healthy and strong 
men have very poor and feeble voices, on account 
of abnormal defects in their vocal organism, and 
sometimes very feeble men have fine voices, yet 
there can be no doubt that a high degree of vitality 
is favorable, and a low degree is unfavorable to 
these qualities and powers of the voice, and to that 
easy management of it., which are essential to ena- 
ble the speaker to endure the labor of addressing 
public assemblies without exhaustion or fatigue, and 
consequent feebleness in delivery. 

2. It naturally manifests itself in a certain fullness 
of utterance and delivery. 

This is a most excellent quality of elocution, in 
which the speaker's resources of physical strength, 
thought, feeling, voice, articulation, and all the ele- 
ments of delivery, seem to be more than adequate 
to the demand. This at least is the impression 
which such fullness of utterance makes upon the au- 
dience, lie seems to deliver himself without effort, 
constraint, or fatigue ; or rather, it is not he that 
speaks ; he opens his mouth, and it seems to speak 
itself. His thoughts speak, his emotions and pas- 
sions speak ; his whole delivery seems to overflow 
from an inexhaustible fullness. His tones are full 
and sonorous; his changes of pitch and inflection 



156 The Sources of Power. 

are full ; that is, they rise and fall to the full pitch 
required by the sentiment ; his articulation is full, 
distinctly enunciating every sound, without being 
labored, or overstrained ; his emphasis is full, reach- 
ing the just measure of force and frequency ; and 
the modulation or melody of his speaking is full, and 
satisfies the ear. In a word, fullness is the charac- 
teristic of the whole delivery. 

3. It imparts animation or vivacity to the speaking, 
for the want of which hardly any other quality can com- 
pensate. 

(1.) Vivacity is a beauty of motion, and depends 
upon vitality. As a beauty of motion it is allied to 
grace. Vitality, acting as keenness and rapidity of 
the intellectual operations, and as liveliness or 
quickness of sensibility, naturally manifests itself in 
those rapid, easy, sprightly, natural and expres- 
sive motions, in which vivacity consists. The mo- 
tions in this case are those of the voice, in its 
changes of quality, force, pitch, inflection, time, 
emphasis and modulation ; also those of the body, 
in its changes of position or attitude ; those of the 
arms, hands and fingers, and of the features or 
countenance, but especially of the eye, which, in 
its amazingly quick, brilliant and varied expressions 
of the soul, is the most perfect type of vivacity. 
These are the motions in which animation in speak- 
ing consists, and by which a good speaker shows 
himself to be alive all over, even to his finger nails, 
and from which every part of his body seems to be 
no less eloquent than his words. 






Vitality and Physical Eegimen. 157 

(2.) Animation, therefore, is a quality of speaking 
for the want of which hardly any other can com- 
pensate. For it is always interesting, and often 
charming, being almost sure to engage the attention 
and sympathy of the audience, and to bring out all 
the elocutionary power which is to be derived from 
that source ; whilst a speaker without animation, 
however otherwise respectable, can hardly fail to 
put the audience to sleep. 

4. The ivant of vitality enfeebles the ivliole delivery. 

Where it is wanting, the speaker seems to be con- 
stantly overdrawing upon inadequate resources. 
The delivery is empty and dry ; it lacks continuity, 
and sustained pressure upon the audience ; it is 
labored, heavy and mechanical. The tones are dry 
and hollow, or rough ; the inflections are either un- 
naturally extended, or they fall short ; the voice is 
feeble, either too low, or strained to a high, shrill 
pitch ; the emphasis is either neglected or artificial, 
and often misplaced ; the articulation is either in- 
distinct or overstrained ; the general movement is 
either too slow or unnaturally rapid. The whole 
delivery is characterized by emptiness or hollowness, 
often making the impression of a want of sincerity 
and earnestness, and it renders the audience discon- 
tented and irritable. The speaking is consequently 
powerless to effect its object. 

§ 83. Vitality and the favorable mood are dependent upon 
physical regimen, which varies for different speakers. 

1. The importance of such regimen arises from its 
influence upon the vitality. 



158 The Soueces or Powee. 

A high degree of vitality, and the favorable mood 
for speaking, are no doubt dependent to a consider- 
able extent upon moral, but far more upon physical 
causes. Hence the importance of some physical 
regimen in preparation for each occasion of speak- 
ing. Some such preparation has been found indis- 
pensable by almost all great orators. It is impossi- 
ble for any one who has never tried it, to be at all 
aware how much aid it will afford in exciting the 
requisite vitality, and in securing the favorable mood. 
It is a pity, therefore, that so many speakers who 
might otherwise excel, allow themselves to neglect 
it ; for in consequence of this neglect, they are sel- 
dom able to bring more than half of their actual 
resources to the work of delivery. 

2. Such regimen varies for speakers of different tem- 
peraments and constitutions, so that only general rules 
can be laid down. 

Every speaker ought to make careful experiments 
for himself, to determine what may be best in his 
own case. There are, however, at least two general 
rules, by the observance of which it will commonly 
be found possible for healthy persons to command 
the requisite amount of vital force, and the favorable 
mood, for almost every foreseen occasion of speaking. 



§ 84. The first general rule is that the speaker, in prepara- 
tion for speaking, should eat less than usual, and the food 
which is taken should he nourishing and easily digested. 

1. The vital forces will not inspire the brain, and 
grind in the stomach, at the same time. 



Vitality and Physical Kegimen. 159 

The vital forces are hardly ever sufficient to in- 
spire the brain with that intense energy and activity 
which public speaking demands, at the same time 
that they are employed in digesting a stomach full 
)f food. Hence it is necessary to tax them as 
lightly as possible in the work of digestion, when 
they are all required for the expression of thought. 

2. Infeehle constitutions this rule sometimes requires 
to be reversed. 

It holds good chiefly for healthy speakers, 
here the general health is enfeebled, it may re- 
quire to be reversed. It is related of the younger 
Pitt, that in the later years of his life., when his 
physical constitution was broken down, he always 
found it necessary, before delivering one of his great 
speeches in Parliament, to brace himself up with a 
Learty meal, and at least a couple of bottles of wine. 
>ome of our greatest American orators also, as is 
'■ell known, have required to be very highly stimu- 
lated before speaking. But these are examples 
fatal to imitate. 

3. Tim food should be nourishing and easily digested. 
Probably in most cases some food is necessary, 

but it should always be taken in a highly concen- 
trated form, such as the yolks of soft-boiled eggs, 
so that as little in bulk and quantity as possible may 
deld sufficient nourishment. 

4. The best regimen for a healtJdy speaker is to ab- 
stain altogether from solid food. 

Where the physical strength is abundantly ade- 
quate, as it ought to be in all young and healthy 



160 The Soueces of Power. 

speakers, the best regimen, approved by a copious 
experience, is total abstinence from solid food, and 
a cup of tea or coffee taken immediately before 
commencing to speak. This last particular may 
seem to be a small matter, but the genial and in- 
spiring influence of a cup of tea upon an empty 
stomach, is much greater than one would suppose ; 
and, rightly considered, nothing is unimportant 
which tends in the least to increase the speaker's 
power before an audience. When the physical 
strength is not fully adequate, some food should 
always be taken, or the consequence may be a 
greatly enfeebled vitality. 



§ 85. The observance of this rule acts favorably upon the 
tellect, sensibilities, and physical organs ; the neglect of 
it enfeebles all these. 



1. Its beneficial effects are asfolloivs. 

These will be found, in a very short time, to be 
such that the speaker will never willingly neglect his 
regimen. For when the stomach is not overloaded 
with food, the intellectual operations are more keen 
and rapid, the sensibilities more easily excited, espe- 
cially the affections are more tender and susceptible, 
than at other times. Also there is more room for the 
play of the breath, and lower organs of the voice. 
In fact the most marked effect of this regimen is upon 
the voice, which is rendered more deep and full and 
strong and flexible ; so that in most cases its power 
will be found to be more than doubled. 



in- 



Vitality and Physical Begimen. 1G1 

2. The evil consequences of neglecting it are the follow- 
ing. 

These are far more damaging than any one would 
believe who has never tried it. For it is almost im- 
possible to speak well with, one's belly full. It im- 
pedes the intellectual operations, dulls the sensibili- 
ties, clogs the affections, and thus renders the speak- 
ing dull and heavy and sluggish. It enfeebles the 
voice, renders it inflexible and unmanageable, and 
its deepest and richest tones unavailable. Often it 
manifests itself in forms hardly to be distinguished 
from total want of earnestness and unction. Ac- 
cordingly we often find in the recorded experience 
of clergymen, such language as the following : 
" Yesterday, I preached twice to my beloved peo- 
ple ; but oh ! I was empty, empty — my wheels were 
taken off, and I dragged heavily through both the 
services." One can hardly read such a passage 
without wishing for an opportunity to reply, Ah! 
my friend, you were not empty, or it would have 
been much better for you and your people ; neither 
were your wheels taken off — you were too full, you 
were overloaded — that was your trouble. 



§ 86. The second general rule is that the speaker, in prepara- 
tion for speaking, should take plenty of rest, and exercise 
in the open air. 

1. Fatigue implies the destruction of life. 

The physiological cause of fatigue, whether of 
body or mind, is always the destruction of life in a 
large number of the vital cells, of which the brain 



162 The Soueces of Power. 

and nervous tissues, and in fact the whole organism 
of the body are composed. This destruction always 
takes place from strenuous and prolonged effort, 
whether of the intellect, sensibility, or will, or of the 
muscles of the body. In mental activity especially, 
and most of all, in that which is accompanied with 
anxiety, or grief, or watchfulness, this destruction 
of life, and consequent exhaustion of the vital forces, 
is very rapid and prostrating. But howsoever it is 
produced, it leaves the animal matter of which the 
defunct life-cells are composed, in a decomposed 
state, in which it is deposited in the blood, render- 
ing this vital fluid thick, sluggish and pale. 

2. In a state of exhaustion, therefore, it is impossible 
to speak tvell. 

For when the speaker comes to his work, having 
his blood thus loaded with dead animal matter, all 
his faculties of body and mind are necessarily 
clogged and dull and sluggish. Evidently to speak 
with feeling, animation, or any other element of 
power, in such a physical and mental condition, 
must be the next thing to impossible. 

3. Hence the necessity of rest and pure air. 

For the blood in this corrupt state is poured into 
the lungs, where the dead matter is absorbed by the 
breath, and exhaled, or carried out of the system. 
Hence the absolute necessity, previous to speaking, 
of adequate rest, and of inhaling large draughts of 
pure air, in order to purify the blood, and restore 
its exhausted vitality. This implies, of course, that 
every cause of fatigue should be avoided, and that 



Vitality and Physical Kegimen. 163 

some time previous to each occasion of speaking 
should be spent in the open air, which should also 
be accompanied with more or less, but never fatiguing 
exercise of the voice. 

4. This rule is of special importance to clergymen. 
The extensive and laborious intellectual and moral 

preparations for speaking which are required of 
clergymen, and which render their observance of 
this rule somewhat difficult, render it also of far 
greater importance for them than for other speakers. 
Abundant experience proves its necessity, and that 
it brings a rich reward of increased power in deliv- 
ery. For the reason that clergymen are compelled 
to speak twice or three times on Sunday, they ought 
never to leave the study later than at noon on Satur- 
day. The remainder of the day should be devoted 
to rest, and gentle exercise in the open air, and the 
night to sound and refreshing sleep. In like, man- 
ner, the intervals between the Sunday services should 
be devoted to rest. For by such adequate refresh- 
ment and renovation of the vital forces, the preacher 
may make the latter services as animated and inter- 
esting as the former, which is the more desirable in 
order to overcome the increasing temptation of 
church-goers to stay at home in the afternoon. 

5. The neglect of this rule by clergymen is both a folly 
and a sin. 

The habit in which so many clergymen indulge, of 
sitting at the study table until late on Saturday even- 
ing, thus rendering the few hours of unrest which 
follow, totally inadequate to restore their exhausted 



164: The Soubces of Power. 

vitality, cannot be too strongly condemned. No ne- 
cessity of intellectual preparation, whether theolo- 
gical or rhetorical, can justify it ; for thus a vast pro- 
portion of the fruits of such preparation is thrown 
away, from inability to deliver with any power what 
they have prepared. This habit is a sin, as well as 
an inexcusable folly — in many cases the consequence 
of previous sin and folly, namely that of neglecting 
their study work on the earlier days of the week — 
sins and follies, which receive their just punishment 
often in such feebleness of delivery as renders the 
attempt at preaching the gospel on the part of those 
who are guilty of them, a miserable failure ; and 
which not unfrequently result in the early ruin of 
their health, and blasting of all their hopes of use- 
fulness. For whatsoever is worthy of the name of 
preaching requires the exercise of the whole vital 
force of a sound and healthy man. To preach the 
gospel takes all there is or can ever be in any man. 



CHAPTEK XI. 

SELF-CONTEOL. 

§ 87. Self-control is essential to the consciousness and mani- 
festation of reserved force in speaking— ' the spirit of the 
prophets must be subject unto the prophets.' 

This divine precept teaches us that the prophets 
Were not allowed to lose the entire control of them- 
selves, even in their inspired revelations, and ecstatic 
visions. The orator also is a prophet in a true 
though limited sense, and it is equally necessary 
that his ardor and passion, however high they may 
rise, should never be allowed to get the better of 
reason and propriety. He must never allow himself 
to be transported wholly out of himself, but there 
must always be a clear method in his prophetic rap- 
tures. It was said of Demosthenes, that even in his 
most impassioned eloquence, he never was known to 
lose control of himself ; and this enabled him to 
control and direct the storm which he raised, and on 
which he rode. In like manner, all truly great 
orators, in their noblest nights, whilst transporting 
their audiences, keep the mastery of the situation by 
remaining masters of themselves. Their speaking 
is always characterized by a certain consciousness 
and manifestation of reserved force, by temperance 



166 The Sources of Power. 

and propriety or becomingness of utterance and 
gesture, which are essential to genuine and sustained 
power in delivery. 

§ 88. The consciousness of reserved force enables the speaker 
to feel secure; in its natural manifestations it awakens 
the confidence of the audience, and the want of it en- 
feebles delivery. 

1. The consciousness of power is itself a source of 
power. 

This consciousness of reserved force applies to 
thought, feeling and utterance. It is practically the 
same thing as the consciousness of power. A very 
large proportion of the power in delivery, which is 
exerted by great orators, results simply and directly 
from this consciousness of power, or from the sense 
of security inseparable from it, which they have ac- 
quired by successful practice. Feeling that they 
carry within them, while speaking, abundant re- 
sources of thought, emotion and utterance, which 
are as yet untouched, they are enabled to exercise 
that rational self-confidence which is essential to 
the employment of their faculties in the proper 
work of delivery (§ 28 — 1). 

2. Its influence upon the speaking is as follows. 

It enables the speaker to forecast his emphatic 
passages and words, to graduate the amount of 
force and time which may be appropriate to the 
several parts of the discourse, to manage his pauses 
and transitions with their proper effect, and to 
speak with due deliberation and right emphasis. 



Self-control. 167 

3. It awakens the feeling of security in the audience, 
and excites their imaginations. 

This consciousness of power, or reserved force, in 
its natural manifestations, produces upon the audi- 
ence a great effect. For the feeling of security 
in the speaker awakens a corresponding feeling of 
security in them. They follow him with confidence, 
who leads them with confidence. They follow him 
with expectation, because he seems to be leading 
them into a region of inexhaustible abundance, of 
which as yet they have had only glimpses from a 
distance. When they see that he is rather restrain- 
ing than exerting himself, they feel the greater in- 
terest in, and ascribe a higher value to what he 
actually says, than they would if they saw that he 
was giving out, at every step, all that there was in 
him. Their imaginations are more excited, and their 
sensibilities are more deeply affected, by what is 
veiled or held back, than they would be if all were 
openly and fully expressed. For in elocution, as in 
rhetoric, partial and judicious suppression is one of 
the most powerful forms of expression. The stifled 
sob of the bereaved mother, at the grave of her dead 
child, is more affecting than the loud and boisterous 
wail of uncontrolled anguish. 

4. The want of this consciousness of 'reserved force 
confuses and enfeebles the elocution, and begets distrust 
in the audience. 

When the speaker feels that he is exerting himself 
to the uttermost, and has nothing to fall back on, 
this renders him anxious and uncertain, which en- 



168 The Soukces of Power. 

feebles all his faculties. In case lie is at no loss for 
words, he will speak too rapidly, piling sentence upon 
sentence, and paragraph upon paragraph, without 
due deliberation, pauses, or discreteness in his deliv- 
ery. In other cases, his timidity and anxiety will be 
so great as to cause hesitation and confusion. His 
voice now trembles ; his tones, inflections, articula- 
tion, emphasis and gesture, are hurried and flurried. 
His whole delivery becomes uncertain, confused and 
ineffectual. By such signs the audience soon per- 
ceive that the speaker is drawing upon all his re- 
sources, that he cannot rise, and must soon decline, 
consequently their expectations are all unfavorable, 
their sensibilities are chilled, and their imaginations 
are paralyzed. They now follow him, if at all, with 
a feeling of insecurity ; he seems to them to have 
less and less power the longer he speaks ; and they 
experience a sense of relief, instead of regret, when 
he comes to a close. It is only in his peroration 
that the speaker can safely exert himself to the ut- 
most, and leave himself without the consciousness 
of reserved force. 



§ 89. The loss of the control of himself causes the speaker to 
lose control of his audience— when overcome by emotion 
he should pause. 

When the speaker loses control of himself through 
excess of feeling, the sympathetic relations between 
himself and his audience are broken up, and thrown 
into confusion. His emotions, being so much deeper 
and more powerful than theirs, become incompre- 



Self-control. 169 

hensible to them ; they can see no good reason why 
he should be so deeply moved, and consequently 
they are unable to sympathize with him. Not only 
then does his passion fail to excite in them corres- 
ponding emotions, but it produces a contrary effect. 
Thus, as we have seen (§ 45—3), weeping, or other 
signs of grief or sorrow, in excess, or when there 
does not seem to be sufficient cause, has the effect 
of drivelling. Whenever, therefore, from such ex- 
cessive emotion, the speaker loses control of himself, 
he necessarily loses control of the audience. He 
can no longer grasp them with his mind, nor hold 
them in his mental grasp up to the object which he 
aims to accomplish. Excessive feeling, moreover, 
soon exhausts the vital forces, and renders the de- 
livery of the subsequent parts of the discourse tame 
and feeble, both in itself, and by contrast with that 
which has preceded. If, however, in spite of him- 
self, the speaker should at any time be overmastered 
by a flood of emotion, his only safe course is to 
pause until he recovers his self-control; in which 
case, if the pause be not too long, it may prove the 
most effective part of his delivery. 



§ 90. Self-control is essential to propriety in speaking, which 
consists in the adaptation of the delivery to the character 
of the speaker, the sentiments, the occasion, and the cir- 
cumstances, and which is of great importance in elocu- 
tion, as in all art. 

1. Propriety, the UT deceat, as understood by the 
ancient authors, and by Shakspeare, depends upon self- 
control. 



170 The Sources op Power. 



(1.) Cicero insists much on propriety, as one of the 
chief essentials to power in oratory ; but he gives 
us little aid in determining wherein it consists, or 
how it is to be attained. His directions are often 
reiterated in such words as the following : " In most 
things [pertaining to oratory] that which is most 
useful is, I know not how, the most becoming." 

(2.) Quintilian is more full and explicit, where he 
tells us, in substance, that propriety consists in the 
adaptation of the delivery to the character of the 
speaker, the sentiments, the occasion and circum- 
stances of speaking. This seems to cover the whole 
ground. 

(3.) Shakspeare teaches us that the chief element 
of this excellence has its source in self-restraint, or 
self-control. In the passage cited below (§ 91), he 
gives us the following direction : " Suit the action 
to the word, and the word to the action ; with this 
special observance, that you o'erstep not the mod- 
esty of nature .... For in the very torrent, tempest, 
aod, as I may say, whirlwind of your passion, you 
must acquire and beget a temperance that may give 
smoothness." We see in this that the most glar- 
ing violations of propriety arise from the loss of 
self-re'straitft, and consist in thus ' overstepping the 
modesty of nature.' 

2. In all art nature requires to he imitated with a 
certain modest reserve. 

Truth to nature does not consist in copying her 
material forms with servility, or minute particular- 
ity. Often this will produce nothing better than a 






Self-control. 171 

caricature. For such is the eternal distinction be- 
tween nature, and art, that we reverence in nature 
what we cannot tolerate in any attempt at the imi- 
tation of her sacred mysteries. That which in 
nature is simple truth, will often, when minutely 
copied, become an outrage on propriety. A cer- 
tain creative freedom is characteristic of all true art. 
For nature can be truly imitated only by generous 
spirits, who sympathize with her inner life ; never 
by servile copying of her mere material forms. 

3. This modest reserve is one of the most important 
lessons of ancient art. 

So imbued with it were the Greeks, and so keen 
was their sense of propriety with respect to it, that 
they seem to have regarded it as a fundamental es- 
thetic law. Hence in expressing even the most vio- 
lent passions, such as the despair of Niobe, the grief 
and anguish of the father of Iphigenia at Aulis, and 
the physical torment of Laocoon and his sons, the 
whole exhibition is subdued, and kept within the 
strictest limits of propriety. The Greek artists 
have, indeed, been criticised for the rigor of their 
works in this respect, as being untrue to nature ; 
for nature often expresses herself in very unlovely 
forms. Despair, e g. grins, gnashes the teeth, and 
tears the hair. Yet the Greeks were right, and 
their critics are wrong. 

4. The principle applies in all its force to elocution. 
For it is certain that whoever, in speaking, should 

attempt to portray the anguish and despair of lost 
souls, by showing us how they grin, and gnash their 



172 The Sources op Power. 

teeth, and tear their hair, would ' overstep the mod- 
esty of nature,' would outrage all propriety, and in- 
stead of producing the impression at which he 
aimed, would excite disgust or ridicule ; and all this, 
for the reason that the sacred mysteries of nature 
require to be imitated or expressed in art with a 
certain reverent modesty, and delicate reserve. 

§ 91. Propriety is the principal point insisted on in Hamlet's 
direction to the players. 

This whole subject of propriety, in its relations to 
self-control, is that which is chiefly insisted on by 
Shakspeare, in that masterly direction to the players 
which he has given us in the Hamlet, and which for 
its own intrinsic excellence, no less than for the 
weight of the great poet's authority, ought to be 
carried in the memory of every student of elocution, 
and of every public speaker. It has, indeed, far 
greater value for the orator than for the actor, for 
the reason that violations of propriety, that is to 
say, violations of truth and nature, ought to be, if 
they are not, more offensive in public speaking upon 
grave and momentous occasions, than they can be 
in play-acting. This whole passage is therefore re- 
produced here : 

" Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced 
it to you. But if you mouth it, as many of our 
players do, I had as lief the town crier spoke my 
lines. Nor do not saw the air too much with your 
hand — thus, but use all gently. For in the very 
torrent, tempest, and, as I may say, whirlwind of 



Self-control. 173 

your passion, you must acquire and beget a tem- 
perance that may give it smoothness. Oh ! it 
offends me to the soul to hear a robustious, perri- 
wig-pated fellow, tear a passion to tatters, to very 
rags, to split the ears of the groundlings ; who, for 
the most part, are capable of nothing but inexplica- 
ble dumb shows and noise. I would have such a 
fellow whipped for o'erdoing Termagant. It out- 

Herods Herod. 'Pray you avoid it Be not 

too tame neither ; but let your discretion be your 
tutor. Suit the action to the word, and the word to 
the action ; with this special observance that you 
o'erstep not the modesty of nature. For anything 
so overdone is from the purpose of playing [speak- 
ing]. Oh ! there be players [speakers] that I have 
seen play [speak], and heard others praise, and that 
highly — not to speak it profanely — that neither 
having the accent of Christians, nor the gait of Chris- 
tian, pagan, nor man, have so strutted and bellowed, 
that I had thought some of nature's journeymen 
had made men, and not made them well, they imi- 
tated nature so abominably," 

§ 92. The means of acquiring self-control in elocution are 
the same as in other things. 

The means of cultivating the power of self-con- 
trol do not come within the province of elocution. 
They are in speaking the same as in every other 
department of life, viz : practice and familiarity, in 
the circumstances and sphere of activity in which 
we most desire to exercise it, together with the 



174 The Sources of Power. 

feeling of our moral responsibility with respect to 
it, and of its indispensable importance to success, 
not only in speaking, but also in everything else. 
For without self-control, man is not man, but only a 
fractional part of the vast and fatal forces of na- 
ture. 

§ 93. Conclusion of the sources of power in delivery. 

It is hoped that the views which have now been 
presented, will tend to obviate the prejudices against 
this art, which have arisen out of the attempt to con- 
struct it from the nature and laws of the organs of 
speech, and of articulate sounds, without reference 
to the sources of its power, in the intellectual, moral 
and esthetic states and workings of the mind and 
soul of the speaker. It is hoped and believed, also, 
that the study of this noble and beautiful art, as here 
laid down, — so far from having any tendency to gen- 
erate coldness, mannerism, or a mechanical style of 
speaking, which to some extent have been the fruits 
of the study of it, conceived as an art of mere man- 
ner, without reference to the states of the soul which 
it is intended to embody, symbolize and express, — 
will so stimulate and quicken the faculty of speaking 
and of eloquence, that the student will be enabled 
to derive the greater benefit from the studies which 
are to follow, of the manner and forms which are 
characteristic of eloquent speaking, that is to say, 
of the Elements of Power in delivery. 



PART II 



THE ELEMENTS OF POWER IN DELIVERY. 



I. — Articulation. 
II. — Accent. 
III. — Pronunciation. 
IV. — The Qualities of the Voice. 
V. — The Powers of the Voice. 
VI. — Pitch and Inflection. 
VII. — Time and Pause. 
VIII.— Force. 
IX. — Emphasis. 
X. — Gesture. 



CHAPTER L 

METHOD OF TREATMENT. 

§ 94. The treatment of the elements of power in delivery in- 
cludes phonology, and the laws of expression. 

1. Phonology is the science of vocal sounds. 

The principles and laws of this science are exhibit- 
ed in the chapters on the vocal organism, articula-^ 
tion, accent and pronunciation. It is hoped that 
these chapters may have an interest for the scientific 
phonologist, independently of their bearing upon 
the art of Elocution. For the objects of this art, 
however, they of course include a discussion of the 
general relations of phonology to expression. 

2. The laws of expression include tJie applications of 
p honology to the expression of thought and sentiment. 

These laws are treated of chiefly in the chapters 
on the qualities and powers of the voice, pitch 
and inflection, time and pause, force, emphasis and 
gesture. The Elements of power in delivery, more- 
over, are properly divided into those of the voice, 
and those of gesture ; of which the former are be- 
yond all comparison the most important, and con- 
stitute nearly the whole of what is commonly in- 
cluded in Elocution. 



178 The Elements op Poweb. 

§ 95. The following treatment of the Elements aims at more 
perfect generalization, and greater simplicity, than have 
been hitherto attained. 

The Elements, as distinguished from the Sources 
of power in delivery, have been copiously and ably 
treated, both by European and Amerioan authors. 
Most of these works, however, are characterized by 
great minuteness of analysis and detail, and contain 
a vast multitude of special rules and precepts. The 
author of this work, in addition to the original views 
presented, especially in phonology, has carefully re- 
worked, and brought to the test of experiment, what- 
ever he has retained from previous writers. He has 
.also aimed to effect a more thorough and perfect 
generalization and simplification of whatever he has 
found wrought out to his hand ; whilst, at the same 
time, he has excluded a great amount of what, in his 
judgment, has been overdone, and thereby rendered 
practically unavailable. 

§ 96. The treatment here proposed is founded upon Dr. Rush's 
Philosophy of the Human Voice. 

1. This is a work of the greatest value. 

This author, it is believed, has done more to lay 
open what was before veiled and mysterious in 
speech, and to explain the phenomena of power in 
delivery, than any other, whether of ancient or mod- 
ern times. His work ought to be patiently studied 
by every one who would become acquainted with 
the nature, powers and adaptations of that won- 
drous vocal instrument, which is brought into play 
in every spoken word. In fact, before it was pub- 






Method of Treatment. 179 



lislied, anything like a scientific exposition of the 
vocal elements of expression was hardly possible. 
Consequently all subsequent writers, at least in this 
country, who are worthy to be consulted, have drawn 
from it, sometimes with, and sometimes without ac- 
knowledgment, both their materials and most of 
their results. 

2. But the work is ill-adapted to tJie wants of prac- 
tical students. 

For those whose only and immediate aim is the 

I attainment of power in delivery, this work can sel- 
dom be of much service. For few persons, except 
the most earnest teachers, or physiologists led by a 
purely scientific interest, can be expected to master 
its difficult and often obscure details ; and even 
where this seems to have been accomplished, as in 
the case of some teachers, the result has not always 
been satisfactory. For the author's plan embraces 
only the treatment of the Elements, excluding en- 
tirely the preceding Sources of power, from which, 
as we have seen, the very life and spirit of delivery 
must be derived. Consequently the tendency of the 
work, if the student be not on his guard, is to dis- 
place from his consciousness those mental operations 
which properly belong to the giving out or expres- 
sion of thought and feeling ; to render predominant 
in his mind the rules and precepts of the art, toge- 
ther with all those other mental actions which, in 
good speaking, are carried on strictly as sub-process- 
es ; and thus, to cherish and develop the vices of 
elocution, rather than to correct them. 



180 The Elements of Power. 

3. The evils which have arisen from the various 
attempts to reduce it to practice, are Jiere guarded against. 

The great difficulty with the work of Dr. Rush, 
then, is not that it is not true, but that it is limited 
to the discussion of the Elements of power, and that 
it is too minute and abstruse for practical use. The 
system here exhibited is founded upon it, for the 
reason that otherwise truth and nature must have 
been violated : whilst the evils which have arisen 
from previous attempts to reduce its minute and ob- 
scure statements to practice, are sufficiently guarded 
against, it is hoped, by the preceding exhibition of 
the Sources of power ; by avoiding, as far as possi- 
ble, the multiplication of rules and precepts, and 
by insisting upon comparatively a few general prin- 
ciples. 






CHAPTEE II. 



THE VOCAL OKGANISM IN KELATION TO VOCAL CUL- 
TURE. 

§ 97. Great importance of vocal culture. 

il. The voice is of 'paramount importance in delivery. 
This would seem to be sufficiently obvious. If it 
ere not, we might refer to the following author- 
itative declaration of Cicero : " For the effectiveness 
and glory of delivery, the voice, doubtless, holds the 
first place." 

2. It is capable of as great improvement for speak- 
ing as it is for singing. 

The wonderful improvement of which the voice is 
capable, is well understood, and fully appreciated 
by the teachers and proficients in the sister art of 
music ; but it is not so generally understood that it 
is capable of equal development, by systematic train- 
ing and exercise, for purposes of oratory. Yet every 
teacher of elocution can refer to numerous instances, 
in which voices very inferior by nature, have at- 
tained, in a short time, by a few simple exercises, 
to great excellence ; have, in fact, doubled, tripled, 
and even quadrupled their speaking power. There 
would seem to be do instances in which diligence 



182 The Elements of Power. 

in such exercises, with due care to guard against 
overstraining the organs, has not resulted in great 
improvement ; whilst it may be said, in general, 
that the untrained, or uncultivated voice, is worth 
little more for public speaking than it is for singing. 

3. The culture of the voice was highly appreciated by 
the ancients. 

Among the Greeks and Romans there was a dis- 
tinct class of teachers, called phonasci, or vocists, 
who devoted themselves wholly to the training of the 
voice, and who carried their pupils through a most 
laborious and protracted course of exercises. In 
order to develop strength of voice, e. g. they pre- 
scribed declamation whilst walking, running, climb- 
ing, and lying upon the back ; and in this last posi- 
tion, with weights on the chest. The results which 
they attained have been already alluded to (§19) 
as exemplified in the thunder- words of Demosthenes, 
and in the sweetness, compass and power of 
Cicero's voice. Similar pains are taken in vocal 
culture, and similar results are obtained by the 
great singers and tragedians of modern times. 

4. Modern neglect of vocal culture for public speak- 
ing is inexcusable. 

In consequence of this neglect it is a rare thing 
to hear a public speaker with a voice of great pur- 
ity, compass and power. And this in clergymen 
especially, is the more inexcusable, because they 
have to rely upon the same instrument, namely, that 
of oral speech, which was so assiduously cultivated 
by the ancient orators, for infinitely higher and 






The Vocal Organism. 183 



holier purposes than were ever conceived of either 
by Cicero or Demosthenes. 

§ 98. Some knowledge of the yocal organism is essential to 
the greatest success in the culture of the voice. 

Some general acquaintance with the physiological 
structure and functions of the vocal organs, is found 
by experience to be a great help in elocutionary 
training. We might expect that this would be so, 
for such reasons as the following. 

1. Many of the organs are strictly voluntary. 

A large class of these organs are immediately 
under the control of the will. Such e. g. are the lips, 
tongue, and breathing muscles. Some knowledge 
of these, in their more important functions, is of 
great utility. For one of the most common and 
fruitful causes of poor speaking, is that these organs 
either have never been reduced under the complete 
and facile control of the will, or that this control 
has become impaired, or well-nigh lost, from careless 
or slovenly habits. Hence, in order to attain, or to 
recover such control, it is found necessary that the 
attention oj: the student, in his exercises, should be 
directed to their functions and modes of operation, 
that the power of his will may be brought to bear 
immediately upon them. 

2. Many oilier of these organs are semi-voluntary. 

It is difficult to impart the necessary information 
with respect to the voluntary organs, without tak- 
ing into view some of the more important of those 
which are semi-voluntary. These are such as the 



184 The Elements of Powee. 

soft palate, and the vocal chords, which perform 
their functions in speaking in part according to 
vital laws, to a certain extent like digestion and 
nutrition ; which, indeed, never operate better than 
when the whole physiological process is unknown. 
Yet even in the case of digestion, where it has be- 
come impaired, the knowledge of its laws is found 
to aid in its restoration. Similar aid, but much 
greater in degree, do we find in the knowledge of 
the structure and functions of the semi-voluntary 
organs of speech, which, though not immediately, 
are yet mediately and indirectly under the control 
of the will. These organs are put. in operation by 
acts of the will, directed not immediately upon 
them, but upon the utterance of the sound, or the 
speaking of the word, which is in the mind. When 
such a volition is put forth, they instinctively respond 
to the action of the will, thus assuming the posi- 
tions, and performing the actions, which the word 
or sound requires, although their functions and 
operations, and even their existence, may be un- 
known to the speaker. But even this instinctive 
action of the semi-voluntary organs is aided, in no 
small degree, especially where it is imperfect, by a 
competent knowledge of their structure and func- 
tions. Experience fully verifies this fact, however 
difficult of explanation it may be. 

3. A minute acquaintance with the physiology of tJie 
organs is not required. 

It seems to have been supposed by some authors, 
that a minute and technical knowledge of the phy- 



The Vocal Organism. 185 

siology of all the vocal organs, was indispensable to 
successful training and practice in elocution. But 
that this is not the case, is proved by the facility 
with which we learn to speak in our earliest child- 
hood, and by the unquestionable success of the an- 
cient plionasci, who can hardly be supposed to have 
had much acquaintance with this department of 
modern science. 

§ 99. The principal vocal organs are the diaphragm, the 
lungs, the bronchial tubes, the trachea, the larynx, the 
vocal chords, the mouth, and the ear. 

A complete analysis would exhibit more than 
thirty distinct organs, each of which performs im- 
portant functions in the speaking of every word. 
These here enumerated, however, are the principal 
ones, and the exposition of them will suffice to im- 
part the necessary information in the training and 
practice of elocution. The subject is one of con- 
siderable difficulty, upon which physiologists have 
not come to a perfect agreement among themselves, 
and to them the student is referred for a more full 
and detailed exposition of the vocal organism. 

§ 100. Tiie diaphragm is an elastic muscle of the abdomen, 
one of the principal organs of breathing, and capable of 
being brought under complete voluntary control. 

1. The diaphragm is the lowest in position of all the 
vocal organs. 

This organ is a very elastic muscle which divides 
the stomach below from the lungs above. Hence it 
has been called, " the roof of the stomach, and the 
floor of the lungs." 



186 The Elements of Power. 

2. Its principal vocal function is that of expanding 
and contracting the lungs in respiration. 

This function it shares with the pectoral muscles, 
not necessary to be described here. When the dia- 
phragm is feeble, the speaker is incapable of draw- 
ing in a full breath, and of expelling it again with 
adequate force. When it is not under perfect vol- 
untary control, he is unable properly to economize 
his breath ; whence impurity of tone, unnecessary 
fatigue, and exhaustion in speaking. When it is 
fully developed, and under good control, neither 
breath nor voice will commonly be found wanting. 

3. It is capable of great development, and of being 
brought under perfect control. 

That this organ is capable of being brought under 
perfect voluntary control, any one may perceive for 
himself, by voluntarily distending and contracting 
the abdomen, without allowing the air to enter or 
escape from the lungs. But apart from the exer- 
cise which Elocution prescribes for this object, this 
control of the muscle is commonly very imperfect. 
It is also capable of great development by the 
proper exercises, for want of which it is often very 
feeble. 

4. The exercise required is that of expanding and 
contracting the muscle by the direct action of the ivill. 

The object of this exercise is to develop the organ 
in size and strength, and to bring it under the most 
perfect control of the will. The exercise should be 
performed, sometimes whilst holding the breath, 
at other times whilst drawing in and expelling it; 






The Vocal Oeganism. 187 

now, as slowly and equably as possible, in order to 
obtain the utmost length or duration of each respira- 
tion — again, more and more rapidly and forcibly, in 
order to obtain the greatest possible force of breath- 
ing. These exercises should be performed once or 
twice a day, for a half or a quarter of an hour at 
a time, with the waist free from stricture, the cloth- 
ing loose, and the stomach empty, or but little dis- 
tended with food. From such exercises, the waist 
soon begins to increase in size, and this increase 
measures the development and increased power of 
the diaphragm, and other breathing organs. We 
see from this, that hardly any more effectual means 
for injuring their voices could be devised, than the 
tight lacing of the ladies. 

§ 101. The lungs depend for their power as a yocal organ 
upon the quantity of breath which they are capable of 
receiving". 

1. The lungs are composed of hollow cells for contain- 
ing the breath. 

This organ is the next in , order above the dia- 
phragm. It consists of two lobes, which are com- 
posed of a vast multitude of vesicles, or little hollow 
cells, into which the breath pours when the chest is 
expanded, and from which it is expelled when the 
chest is contracted, by the expansive and contrac- 
tile action of the diaphragm and pectoral muscles. 
The greater or less quantity of breath which the 
lungs are capable of containing, is, then, other 
things being equal, the measure of their power as a 
vocal organ. Large and capacious lungs, therefore, 



188 The Elements of Power. 

as commonly indicated by a broad and full chest, 
are a grand desideratum for the public speaker ; as 
a narrow chest and small lungs are extremely un- 
favorable. 

2. The lungs are capable of great development. 

The reason of this is that a considerable propor- 
tion of the air cells, of which they are composed, 
are not, commonly, even in perfectly healthy per- 
sons, brought into use ; that is, they are not ex- 
panded or filled with air in respiration, but they he 
in a collapsed state ; and those, moreover, which are 
utilized, are not expanded to their utmost capacity. 
Now, by the proper exercises, the former class are 
brought into use, and the latter are increased in 
size and capacity. 

3. The exercise required for the development of this 
organ, consists in inhaling the largest possible draughts 
of pure air. 

This exercise should be performed whilst standing 
in an upright position, or leaning back and thrust- 
ing out the chest; also, whilst walking, running, and 
declaiming out of doors. In this way the girth of the 
chest is much increased ; by which is measured the 
increase in number and capacity of the utilized air 
cells, and the development of this organ, together 
with the breathing apparatus. 

§ 102. The bronchial tubes and the trachea are the pipes 
which convey the breath to and from the lungs, and give 
resonance to the voice. 

1. These organs are shaped like an inverted tree. 
They are next in position above the lungs. 






The Vocal Organism. 189 



Taken together with the larynx, the next to be con- 
sidered, they constitute what is called the windpipe, 
which resembles, in its external form, an inverted 
tree. The bronchial tubes are the inverted twigs 
and branches ; the trachea is the trunk, and the 
larynx, the upturned root. The bronchia are a 
great number of little air-pipes, whose lower ex- 
tremities, the tips of the twigs, are inserted into the 
upper surface of the lungs. These tubes, as they 
ascend, are all brought together so as to form two 
principal branches, which, as they continue to as- 
cend, are finally consolidated in one main or trunk. 
This is the trachea, which ascends through the neck 
to the throat, and terminates in the larynx, the root 
of the inverted tree. 

2. These organs have two vocal functions, that of air- 
pipes, and that of resonant cavities. 

Both of these functions are of the greatest im- 
portance. The first is that of conveying the breath 
to and from the lungs and the mouth, the second 
is that of giving resonance to the lower tones of the 
voice. This resonance, or re-echoing of the sound, 
in the cavities of these organs, is that which gives 
their peculiar character and force to the low tones, 
or, as they are often called, the chest tones of the 
voice. Hence the larger and more capacious these 
organs, the greater the depth, fullness and volume 
of the vocal sounds in speaking. 

3. TJw exercises for their development are the same 
as those prescribed for the diaphragm and the lungs, 
together with that of sounding the low tones. 



190 The Elements of Power. 

These organs are very liable to become obstructed 
by secretions from colds and bronchial diseases, 
which soon destroy the powers of the voice for pub- 
he speaking. In order to guard them from such 
injuries, and to develop them to their greatest pos- 
sible capacity of resonance, they should be much 
exercised in breathing large draughts of pure air, 
and in sounding the lower and lowest tones of 
the voice. In this latter exercise, however, ex- 
treme care is necessary not to overstrain the 
organs; otherwise the voice may be irreparably 
spoiled. Moderately exercised as above, these organs 
rapidly attain a great increase of their capacity and 
power. Such exercise, moreover, will often cure in- 
veterate bronchitis, which is caused by inflammation 
of the tubes, when all other remedies have failed. 

§ 103. The larynx and vocal chords are the organs for gen- 
erating the sound of the voice. 

1. The larynx is a bell-UJce cavity, in which the 
sound of tlie voice is generated. 

The position of this organ is that of the root of 
the inverted tree, of which the trachea is the trunk, 
and the bronchia are the branches. It is formed 
by an expansion of the trachea, and causes that pro- 
tuberance in the throat which is called " Adam's ap- 
ple." One of its principal vocal functions is that of 
resonance. 

2. The vocal chords are the organ by which the 
sound is generated. 

The larynx is crossed about the middle of its bell- 
like cavity, by two parallel muscular chords, the 



The Vocal Organism. 191 

chordce vocales, the extremities of which are fastened 
to its sides, and which are capable of being length- 
ened or shortened, with increase or diminution of 
their tension, by the muscular action of the organ. 
These chords are made to vibrate in unison by the 
breath, as it is expelled from the lungs; and by 
these vibrations the breath is converted into sound. 
Thus the sound of the voice is generated. The con- 
trivance is precisely similar to that of a double- 
stringed iEolian harp. The sounds thus produced 
derive their peculiar human character from the res- 
onance which takes place in the beU of the larynx, 
also in the windpipe, mouth, and cavities of the 
nostrils. 

3. The force or loudness of the sound depends chiefly 
upon the amplitude or breadth of the vibrations. 

When the breath is expelled from the lungs with 
greater or less force, it causes the vocal chords to 
vibrate through a greater or less breadth ; and 
these vibrations, according to their amplitude, pro- 
duce a sound of greater or less force or loudness. 
Hence the loudness of sound of which the voice is 
capable, depends ultimately upon the strength of 
the diaphragm and pectoral muscles, by which the 
breath is expelled. It depends also in no inconsid- 
erable degree upon the size of the resonant cavities, 
inasmuch as the same concussion will produce a 
louder sound in a large bell, than it will in a small 
one. 

4. The pitch of the sound depends upon the number 
of vibrations in a given time. 



192 The Elements of Powek. 

The vocal chords are capable of being tightened 
or relaxed by the muscular action of the larynx; 
thus the number of vibrations in a given time is 
increased or diminished, and the sound thereby 
produced, is made either higher or lower in pitch. 
The chords in women and children are normally 
about a third shorter than in men ; and whilst the 
common range of the human voice is about three 
octaves, the pitch of the child's, and of the female 
voice, is an octave higher than that of the adult 
male. The lowest tone which the ear perceives, is 
due to about thirty vibrations in a second ; in the 
highest, the vibrations run up to as many as four 
thousand. 

There are other vocal organs, such as the pharynx 
or swallow, immediately connected with the larynx, 
and sharing, to a certain extent, its function of reso- 
nance, but which do not seem to require any exposi- 
tion. 

5. The exercises for these organs are the same here- 
after prescribed for the cultivation of the ear and voice 
('§§105-4; 174). 

These exercises are of great importance to pre- 
serve these organs in a healthy state, and, especially, 
free from the secretions produced by the various af- 
fections of cold. For among other effects of these 
is that of aphonia, or voicelessness, in which the 
person is unable to speak, except in a whisper, and 
which is produced by the inflammation and clogging 
of the vocal chords, so that they cease to vi- 
brate. 



The Yocal Organism. 193 

§ 104. The principal yocal functions of the mouth are those 
of resonance, and differentiations of the volume of sound. 

1. This organ includes a number of component 
organs. 

These are such as the hard and soft palates, the 
tongue, teeth, gums and lips, together with the cavi- 
ties of the nostrils which open into the mouth. But 
it does not seem necessary to give a particular ex- 
position of these for the purposes of practical elocu- 
tion. 

2. The mouth gives increased and variously modi- 
fied resonance to the vocal sounds. 

The cavity of the mouth is a continuation and 
enlargement of the bell of the larynx ; and hence it 
gives a greatly increased resonance to the sounds 
which are generated by the vibrations of the vocal 
chords. But inasmuch as the cavity is capable of 
assuming a great variety of shapes, under the action 
of the will, in the speaking of words, this resonance 
is endlessly modified ; to which modifications are 
due, in great part, the different qualities of the hu- 
man voice. For the best performance of this func- 
tion of resonance, the mouth requires to be of ade- 
quate size, especially the cavities about the root of 
the tongue, and in the arch of the roof. Not unfre- 
quently its capacity is considerably diminished by a 
disproportionate size of the soft palate, tonsils, 
tongue, gums and teeth ; in which case, the reson- 
ance is liable to be confused and feeble, and the 
qualities of the voice to be marred. 



194 The Elements of Power. 

3. The organs of the mouth differentiate the volume 
of sound. 

The most important vocal function of the mouth 
organs, is that of differentiating the whole volume 
of sound, produced by the vocal chords in their 
resonant cavities into the particular and variously 
modified sounds of which words are composed, and 
which belong to the expression of different senti- 
ments. This is effected in two ways. 

(1.) By modifications in size and shape of the reson- 
ant cavities. By such modifications the principal re- 
sonance of the voice is thrown into different parts of 
the cavities, and thus different qualities are imparted 
to it. The nasal quality e. g. is produced by throwing 
the resonance chiefly into the nasal cavities. In like 
manner, the peculiar quality of the high or acute 
sounds depends, in great part, upon the fact that 
these have their characteristic resonance in the 
upper cavities of the mouth ; whence they are often 
called, head tones ; whilst the peculiar quality of the 
low or grave sounds, is also largely due to their 
resonance, for the most part, in the lower cavities 
of the trachea and bronchial tubes ; whence they 
are called, chest tones. This different resonance is 
not, indeed, the cause of their difference in pitch 
(§ 103 — 4), but it contributes materially to their dif- 
ferentiation in respect to those qualities by which 
they are adapted to the expression of different sen- 
timents. 

(2.) By the action of the organs of articulation 



KThe Vocal Organism. 195 

By the action of those interior and exterior organs 
of the mouth, which are employed in articulation, 
namely, the soft and hard palates, the tongue, gums, 
teeth and lips, the volume of sound is still further 
differentiated into those elemental sounds of human 
speech, which are represented by the letters of the 
alphabet, and which compose syllables and words. 
The amazing power of differentiation possessed by 
these organs, appears from the fact that by their 
action the volume of homogeneous sound, which 
streams from the vocal chords, is differentiated into 
all those innumerable particular sounds, and com- 
binations of sounds, out of which the whole struc- 
ture of human speech is built up, and which express 
all the thoughts, and shades of thought, and all the 
infinitely diversified sentiments, of which the human 
mind is capable. 

4. The exercises required for this organ should aim 
to develop its resonant and differentiating capacities. 

There is no doubt about it, a large and well formed 
mouth is a great advantage to the public speaker. 
In general, the larger the internal cavities, the better 
the resonance of the voice. Often, however, the re- 
sonant capacities are not half utilized ; and they are 
capable of considerable development by the con- 
scious effort to speak with a full voice. The or- 
gans of differentiation should be exercised systemat- 
ically, for the purpose of bringing them under the 
most perfect and facile control of the will, and of 
obtaining the greatest possible precision in the form- 
ation of all the sounds of speech. More specific 



196 The Elements of Power. 

directions will be given in the exercises prescribed 
for articulation (§ 114). 



§ 105. The ear is the organ of perception and discrimina- 
tion of sounds. 



1. Hearing is essential to speaking. 

The importance of the ear, in its relations to 
speech, is evinced by the fact that persons born deaf 
are also dumb. This statement hardly needs qual- 
ification from the artificial, feeble and confused ar- 
ticulation which such persons, with laborious effort 
and instruction, may sometimes acquire. For prop- 
erly we learn to speak in no other way than by imi- 
tating the speaking sounds we hear from others 
(§ 12 — 3). It is by the ear alone that the mind acts 
in the perception, and discrimination from each 
other, of those numberless modifications of sound, 
of which the speech of man is composed, so as to 
enable the other vocal organs to reproduce them at 
pleasure. 

2. The functions of the ear in speaking are the same 
as in singing. 

The excellences and defects of this organ, with 
respect to speaking and singing, are precisely the 
same. Its chief excellence in both consists in fine- 
ness, or keenness, or delicacy of discrimination from 
each other of the different sounds, with respect to 
quality, force, pitch and time. For it is in the infi- 
nitely various modifications of sound, with respect 
to these particulars, that both speaking and singing 






TheVogal Organism. 197 



chiefly consist. To these, however, must be added 
articulation, which is essential in speaking, but not 
absolutely essential in singing. Accurate discrimi- 
nation of sounds, therefore, is at least as indispensa- 
ble in speaking as it is in singing. 

3. The most faulty speaking implies the discrimina- 
tion of sounds. 

When in teaching elocution an illustration is 
drawn from music, we often hear from the pupil 
some such reply as this, " O, I know nothing of 
music. I have never been able to distinguish one 
sound from another." Now this, as we here see, is 
always a mistake ; and if it were true in any case, 
that person could never have learned to speak. 
For it is no less an essential function of the ear to 
discriminate, than it is to perceive sounds. Let the 
student turn his attention to this point, and he will 
find that he has been distinguishing sounds from 
each other all his life, with respect to ah those mod- 
ifications of them which enter into music, except 
that of concord or harmony. For with this excep- 
tion, all the modifications of sound which belong to 
music, are employed in speech, and can be repre- 
sented by the notation of the musical score (§ 3; 13 — 2). 

4. The training and practice which tlve ear requires 
are tJie same for speaking that they are for singing. 

The elementary exercises prescribed by the teach- 
ers of vocal music, are the best possible for the 
training of the ear, as also for the development of the 
qualities and powers of the voice, for public speak- 
ing. These exercises, moreover, are hardly of less 



198 The Elements oe Power. 

importance in the one case than in the other. For 
one of the main causes of feebleness in delivery, is 
that the ear is dull by nature, or has become so 
from inattention and careless habits, and requires 
to be trained up to discriminate with delicacy and 
facility. Many, it is true, fail to recognize the im- 
portance of these exercises, from the fact that good 
speakers may never have learned to sing, and good 
singers are often miserable speakers. But it must 
be remembered that what is here stated and en- 
forced, does not rest upon an assumed identity, but 
upon the obvious analogy, between these kindred 
and sister arts, and upon abundant experience. 
These exercises should be continued at least until 
the student is able to ascend and descend the dia- 
tonic scale with accuracy, and to distinguish with 
facility the principal intervals of the second, fifth 
and eighth. Even without this, much may be ac- 
complished in elocution, but it is hardly possible to 
attain the best results ; and there are few persons 
whose ears are so dull that they cannot learn to do 
all that is here required with very little trouble. 






CHAPTEE ni. 

ARTICULATION. 

§ 106. Articulation is the formation, and jointing together 
into syllables, of the elementary sounds of speech. 

Articulation properly includes both these opera- 
tions. The above definition is strictly according to 
the etymology of the word, which is derived from ar- 
ticulus, signifying both a little member, and a little 
joint. The articulating organs come into full play, 
both in the formation of the elements, and in joint- 
ing them together into syllables ; as also in forming- 
syllables into words ; but their use in this last case 
belongs under the head of pronunciation, of which 
articulation, strictly taken, is the fundamental and 
controlling element. 

§ 107. The first division of the elementary sounds is that of 
vowels, semi-vowels, and consonants. 

1. Analysis of the sounds is indispensable. 

In order properly to exhibit articulation as an 
element of power in delivery, and to afford the most 
effectual aid in acquiring it, we shall find it neces- 



200 The Elements of Powee. 

sary to analyze and classify the elementary sounds 
of the English language, and to determine precisely 
by what organs, and by what position or action of 
these organs, they are formed. Such classifications 
may be made in different ways, with some special 
utility belonging to each. The first and most com- 
mon of these is that which is here given. 

2. The principle of this division is that of vocality. 

The word, vowel, vocalis in Latin, signifies a vocal 
sound, that is, a sound made by simply vocalizing 
the breath. The vowels, therefore, are those element- 
ary sounds which have the highest degree of vocal- 
ity, or a perfect vocality. The semi-vowe'ls, accord- 
ing to the signification of the word, are those which 
have a lower degree of vocality. The consonants 
are those of such feeble vocality that they are sup- 
posed in this nomenclature, though falsely, as we 
shall see, to be incapable of articulation by them- 
selves, and to require for this purpose to be joined 
with vowels. 



3. This division is neither accurate nor comj 
No strict definition can be given of any of these 
classes ; they are not distinguished from each other 
by any sharp dividing lines, or exclusive differ- 
ential characteristics. This is evident from the 
name, semi-vowels, denoting a class of sounds 
which are neither one thing nor the other, but a 
mixture of vowel and consonant. The word, con- 
sonant, is altogether objectionable, not only be- 
cause it includes, as we shall see, sounds which are 
fundamentally different, but also because it intimates 



Articulation. 201 

that such sounds cannot be formed or articulated 
by themselves, which certainly is not true. In ad- 
dition to this, a number of the sounds classed as 
vowels are in reality diphthongs, or double vowels ; 
whilst several of those commonly represented as 
diphthongs, are nothing but simple vowels. Not- 
withstanding, this classification is often convenient, 
and cannot be wholly dispensed with. 

§ 108. A rigorous classification of the elements is impossible, 
for tlie reason that they are a series from the greatest 
openness to perfect closure of the organs. 

It would seem that a perfect classification of the 
elementary sounds upon the above, or any other 
one principle, is not possible. The reason of this is 
that they constitute an irregular and complicated 
series, from the greatest openness to the most per- 
fect closure of the organs of articulation. The 
sounds which are made with these organs in the 
most open position, naturally have the highest de- 
gree of vocality ; those with the organs brought 
nearer together, a less degree of vocality ; and 
those with the organs closed, the least, or none at 
all. But this series is irregular and involved, so 
that the sounds cannot be arranged in an unbroken 
order. It is easy, indeed, to fix the extremes. On 
the side of the greatest openness and strongest vo- 
cality, we have the sound of a as in far ; and on 
that of perfect closure, those of b and p. But 
these last two letters represent two whoUy different 
classes of sounds, of which the former have an im- 



202 The Elements of Power. 

perfect vocality, the latter none at all. The ex- 
tremes in the vowel series are, on the one hand, a 
as in far, and on the other i as in pin. All the other 
vowels and diphthongs have less vocality than the 
former, and greater than the latter ; but a as in all is 
formed by an openness very different in the position 
of the organs, from that of i as in pine. After these 
come the sounds which are formed by the organs in 
near approach, but not in actual contact ; such as y, 
w, r ; next, those formed by a partial contact, such 
s, z, v, sh, th ; and finally those formed by perfect 
closure of the organs, such as m, 1, g, k, d, t, b, p. 
Now there is no point in this irregular gradation 
from the greatest openness to perfect closure, at 
which the series can be divided with rigorous pre- 
cision. This difficulty cannot be entirely overcome, 
but there are other classifications of much greater 
practical utility than the preceding. 

§ 109. The second division of the elements is that of tonic, 
subtonic, and atonic sounds. 

This classification, upon the same principle, is 
more nearly accurate and complete, and of far 
greater practical utility, than the former. The 
principle is the same also with that of the division 
into surd and sonant, first established by the native 
Sanskrit grammarians, and now of universal applica- 
tion in linguistic science. The tonics correspond to 
the vowels and diphthongs, and consequently have 
the highest degree of vocality. The subtonics have 
a lower degree of vocality, and include the semi- 



Articulation. 203 

vowels, together with, all the consonants which have 
any vocality at all. They are the sounds represent- 
ed by the following signs, y, w, wh, r, 1, z as in zone, 
and as in azure, th as in then, j, v, ng, nk, n, m, g, 
d, b. Both the tonics and subtonics are included in 
the class of sonants. The atonies are altogether 
destitute of vocality ; they are mere articulations 
which check or stop off the whispering breath. 
They correspond to the class of surds, and are as 
follows : h, th as in thin, sh, s as in see, f, k, t, p. 
We shall find that these distinctions will enable us 
to simplify the rules of English pronunciation, and 
to explain a great number of its apparent anomalies. 



§ 110. The subtonics and atonies are again divided into hard, 
soft and feeble checks. 

The principle of this division is the degree in 
which the sound or breath is checked by the organs 
of articulation. From the fact that all these sounds 
are more or less checked, as to the outward flow of 
the vocalized or non-vocahzed breath, by contact, 
or a near approach to contact, of the articulating 
organs, it is found necessary to classify them upon 
this principle. The special utility of this classifica- 
tion is that it directs the attention of the student to 
the peculiar checking action of the articulating or- 
gans, and thus enables him to obtain a more perfect 
control over them, in the performance of this func- 
tion. The feeble checks are those articulations by 
which the sound or breath is checked in the least 
degree, either by a very slight contact, or a near 



204: The Elements of Power. 

approach to contact, of the articulating organs. 
They are the sounds represented by y, w, wh, r, 1, h. 
The soft checks are those in which the contact is 
soft or partial, yet such as to restrain the sound or 
breath in a sensible manner. They are represented 
by z as in azure and zone, th in then and thin, j, v, 
sh, s in see, f. The hard checks are those in which 
the outflow of the sound or breath through the 
mouth is entirely stopped off by the hard or firm 
contact of the organs. They are represented by ng, 
nk, n, m, g, d, b, k, t, p. 

§ 111. The subtonic hard checks are divided into nasals and 
subnasals. 

The principle of this division is the degree in 
which the resonance of the sound is thrown into 
the nasal cavities. These sounds are all properly 
hard checks, because the outflow of the sound 
through the mouth is perfectly stopped off by a 
hard contact of the mouth organs. But in the na- 
sals, the resonance of the sound takes place along 
the whole line of the nasal cavities. They are rep- 
resented by ng, nk, n, m. In the subnasals, the re- 
sonance is in the back cavities of the nostrils, where 
these open into the mouth. They are represented 
by g, d, b. 

§ 112. The number of the elementary sounds in the English 
language is forty-five. 

The number of these sounds is estimated by Prof. 
Day at thirty-two, by Dr. Rush, at thirty-five, and 



Articulation. 



205 



by Mr. William Eussell, a practical elocutionist and 
teacher of the art, at forty-three. But none of these 
estimates is anything more than an approximation. 
In fact the elementary sounds may be regarded as 
more or less numerous, according as they are more 
or less minutely analyzed. For the shades of differ- 
ence, especially between some of the vowels, are 
often extremely fine, so that it is a nice question 
whether they are to be regarded as the same, or dif- 
ferent ; whether e< g. a as in all, and o as in nor, 
whether i as in pin, and y as in folly, are distinguish- 
able or not. The number here given is preferred 
not so much for its rigorous accuracy, as for its supe- 
rior utility in the training and practice which Elocu- 
tion prescribes. There are, moreover, certain tran- 
sitional sounds, which enter into the formation of 
syllables and words, and which will require consid- 
eration hereafter (§ 148 — 4). The elements, as ar- 
ranged in the table below, are represented by the 
italics. 







Table of 


THE 


Elements. 






TONICS. 


SUB-TONICS. 


ATONICS. 


arm 


eve 


00 


(yet 




'siruj 


1* 


F.C. ■{ /iay 


all 


not 


« 


tcay 




blink 


r E. 


ihin 


ask 
hat 
care 


nor 
old 
hut 


© ' 

© 


when 
ray 

Zay 


1 

A - 

o 
■a 


nay 
may 

(/ay 


, CO 

1 ft 


© 


shun 
see 


fate 


full 




, azure 


OS 

K 


day 


\t 


m (ye« 


pine 


rule 


1 


zone 




6ay 


Ji 


1 ffcey 


pm 


wse 




then 






Hard Che 


err 


oil 


=S 


W 






pet 


OUT 

20 


to 


Mle 




— 




17 


8 



206 The Elements of Power. 

§ 113. The elementary sounds are all capable of voluntary 
modification. 

The foregoing analysis does not pretend to ex- 
hibit a]l the differences between the elementary 
sounds, for they are all capable of voluntary 
modification. Thus the tonics and subtonics may 
all be deprived of their vocality, and reduced to 
atonies, by voluntarily stopping off the vibrations of 
the vocal chords ; in other words, they may all be 
articulated in non-vocal, or whispering breath. If 
this were not so, it would be impossible to speak in 
a whisper. Again, there are other differences be- 
tween subtonics and atonies, besides that of vocal- 
ity ; otherwise it would be impossible to distinguish 
the cognates, b, p, — d, t, — g, k, when uttered in a 
whisper, from each other. For the position of the 
organs in the formation of each pair of these cog- 
nates, is very nearly, if not precisely the same. So 
also the hard, soft and feeble checks may be, and 
often require to be articulated in a more or less 
hard, soft, or feeble manner; the breath, whether 
vocalized or not, requires to be expelled more or 
less forcibly, and the organs to be placed in con- 
tact, and separated again, more or less abruptly. 
This voluntary modification of the elements is of 
the utmost importance, in order to express all the 
distinctions of thought, and all the varieties and 
shades of the gentle, tender, elevated and passion- 
ate, or violent emotions. 



Articulation. 207 

§ 114. The proper exercise in the elementary sounds consists 
in forming them with the utmost precision, botii sepa- 
rately, and in their easier and more difficult combina- 
tions. 

1. Tltese exercises are of great importance. 

The student should not fail to exercise his articulat- 
ing organs in the formation of all the elementary 
sounds. These exercises should be continued until 
the breathing, vocalizing and checking organs are 
brought under perfect control, and to the highest 
degree of efficiency and facility, in the formation of 
every sound. 

2. The attention should be directed to the position 
and action of the organs in the formation of each sound. 

For this purpose, the aid of a teacher should be 
secured, if possible, to explain the position and ac- 
tion of the organs in each case, and to exemplify the 
correct sounds, together with the student's errors 
and defects. Where a teacher canot be had, refer- 
ence should be made to the description of the posi- 
tion and action of the organs in the formation of 
each sound, which is given under the head of pro- 
nunciation. For we find by experience that where 
all other attempts fail to correct faults in articula- 
tion, this method commonly succeeds. 

3. The exercises should, be upon the sounds in their 
several classes, according to the preceding analysis. 

The common rule, " Take care of your conso- 
nants, and the vowels will take care of themselves," 
though it expresses an important truth, is not alto- 
gether a safe one. The student should be careful 



208 The Elements of Power. 

to practice on every sound by itself, especially the 
semi-vowels and consonants without vowels at- 
tached, paying no attention to the notion, that a 
consonant cannot be articulated without the aid of 
a vowel, which groundless notion it is difficult to 
imagine how people with ears should ever have en- 
tertained. 

(1.) The tonics should be carefully rendered with 
the precise distinctions between those that are most 
nearly alike. 

(2.) The subtonics should be formed with as full a 
vocality as can be given them. 

(3.) The atonies, with no vocality at all, i. e. with 
the non-vocalized, or whispering breath. 

(4.) The hard, soft and feeble checks must be care- 
fully formed, with the exact position and action of 
the organs, with the precise degree of contact re- 
quired by each class, so that the vocal or whisper- 
ing breath may be perfectly stopped off, or partially, 
or very slightly checked. 

(5.) The nasals and subnasals require to be prac- 
ticed on with special reference to the resonance of 
the voice in the nasal cavities, and to the different 
resonance in the two classes, as being in the for- 
mer class along the whole line of these cavities, and 
in the latter, confined to that portion of them where 
they open into the mouth. 

4. Exercises in whispering breath are of great im- 
portance. 

There is no more important exercise in articula- 
tion than that which consists in speaking in a 
whisper. The reason is that thus the distinction of 



Akticulation. 209 



vocality and non-vocality is eliminated, and the 
only way of making one's self understood, is by the 
strength and precision of the articulation. The 
attempt to speak in a whisper to persons at a little 
distance thus brings out all the speaker's articulat- 
ing powers. 

5. Exercises in the more difficult combinations of 
the elements. 

In addition to the above exercises, the student 
should practice his organs in the more difficult 
combinations of the elementary sounds, repeating 
them in succession as rapidly as possible. The fol- 
lowing are examples of such difficulties. 

That morning, thou that slumbered'st not before, 
Nor slept' st, great ocean, laid'st thy waves to rest, 
And hush'dst thy mighty minstrelsy. 

But the best possible examples for this purpose, are 
those with which children amuse themselves, in 
practicing and gaining control over their articulat- 
ing organs, such as the following. 

Theophilus Thistle, the thistle-sifter, 
Sifted a sieve of unsifted thistles. 
If Theophilus Thistle, the thistle-sifter, 
Sifted a sieve of unsifted thistles, 
"Where is the sieve of unsifted thistles, 
That Theophilus Thistle, the thistle-sifter, sifted? 

§ 115. A syllable consists either of one elementary sound, or 
of several combined. 

The sound which is represented by the letter a, 
forms a perfect syllable by itself in the indefinite 
article ; on the other hand, the word, helm, composed 



210 The Elements of Power. 

of four distinct elementary sounds, is yet but one 
syllable. In the formation of syllables, whether of 
single elements, or of many thus jointed together, 
the voice obeys certain laws, which depend, in great 
part, upon the nature of the elements, as exhibited in 
the preceding analysis. These laws require now to 
be unfolded. 

§ 116. A syllable is an articulate sound formed by a single 
impulse of the voice. 

It is the distinctive character of a syllable, that it 
is formed by a single impulse or movement of the 
voice. This is equally the case whether the syllable 
consist of a single elementary sound, as a in aright, 
or of several in combination, as the word, strands, 
composed of seven distinct elements. If tins latter 
word be incorrectly pronounced in two syllables, 
str-ands, as such words often are, it will be found 
that it takes two such impulses. This characteriza- 
tion of the syllable we owe to Dr. Bush. 



§ 117. The division into syllables is caused sometimes by the 
strength of vocality in the tonics, sometimes by the rela- 
tion of different elements to each other, and sometimes it 
is arbitrary. 

A great deal has been written in answer to the 
question, what causes the division of the elements 
into syllables? and much confusion has arisen from 
the attempt to reduce this phenomenon to one cause. 
The truth is that there are at least three such 
causes, which operate either separately, or in combi- 
nation with each other. 



Articulation. 211 

1. The principal cause is tlie strength of vocality 
which belongs to the tonics. 

The strength of vocality in the tonics is such that 
no two of them can be fully sounded with a single 
impulse of the voice. In the case of a diphthong, 
ind'eed, two of the tonics are blended in one, and 
articulated by one impulse ; but this is done by with- 
holding from the latter of them its full tonic vocal- 
ity, and making it coalesce with the former. If the 
full tonic vocality be given to the latter tonic, the 
diphthong will be resolved, and two syllables will be 
the result. Thus oi as in oil is a diphthong ; but if 
the full tonic vocality be given to i, the diphthong is 
resolved into two syllables, and articulated with a 
double impulse of the voice. Hence the word, navy, 
e. g. is of two syllables, and cannot be of more or 
less, because it contains two tonics, and no more;, 
each with its full tonic vocality. It follows from 
this that there cannot be more than one full tonic 
in one syllable. 

2. A second cause is the relation of different elements 
to each other. 

This relation is often such that no single impulse 
of the voice can be made to comprehend some of the 
elements in combination with others ; in other 
words, the change of position of the organs, in pass- 
ing from one to another, is often so great as to 
necessitate the closing of one vocal movement, and 
the commencing of another. This cause, together 
with the preceding, operates in the case of the word 
articulation, e. g. which is of five syllables, and can- 



212 The Elements of Power. 

not be pronounced in less, because it contains just 
five tonics (io of the last syllable, representing u), 
and because the relation between the sounds of ar 
and ti, ti and cu, cu and la, la and tion = shun, is 
such that no two of them can be joined together in 
a single phonetic impulse. This cause operates on 
the most open sounds, i. e. those which are made 
with the organs in the most open position, equally 
with the closest sounds. Thus in the artificial com- 
bination, i o e u a, there are necessarily just as many 
syllables as there are elementary sounds, because 
these elements are all tonics, and because the rela- 
tion between them in juxtaposition, is such that no 
two of them can be made by a single vocal impulse. 

3. The division into syllables is sometimes arbitrary. 

This is the case in such words as higher, flower, 
goer, mower, and many others, which may be pro- 
nounced correctly in two syllables, or incorrectly in 
one, so as to be indistinguishable in sound from 
hire, flour, gore, more. Accordingly in poetry, they 
are freely used as one or two syllables, according to 
the requirement of the metre.* 

* It is with no little regret that the author feels obliged to differ here, and 
on other still more important points, from that eminent scholar and penolo- 
gist, Prof. Win. Whitney, from whose masterly criticisms upon the Standard 
Alphabet of Prof. Lepsius, valuable aid has been derived in the foregoing analy- 
sis of the elementary sounds. Prof. Whitney maintains (Trans. Am. Or. So. vol. 
viii. pp. 359-60) that the above characterization of the syllable, as an articulate 
sound formed by a single impulse of the voice, "is not of the slightest value." 
"Just as much," he says, " is a whole word, or a whole sentence, uttered by a 
single impulse of the voice." The true reason why the word navy, e. g, is of 
two syllables, he says, "is clearly this: among the four sounds of which it is 
composed, there are two which are of so much more open position, more sono- 
rous and. continuable, than the others with which they are connected, that they 
make upon the ear the impression of two phonetic impulses." But this impres- 



Articulation. 213 



§ 118. Every syllable is composed of a radical and a vanish- 
ing' sound. 

We are indebted to Dr. Rush also for our knowl- 
edge of this curious fact. The commencement of 
every syllable is its radical, and the close is its van- 
ishing sound. The latter naturally rises through a 
whole tone of the musical scale above the former. 
Let the syllable, fate, e. g. be spoken without emo- 

sion is fallacious, because " the distinction of syllables is primarily made, not by 
the mouth of the speaker, but by the ear of the hearer." 

Comments. — 1. The learned professor teaches us here that the distinction of 
syllables depends upon the juxtaposition of open and close sounds. Now this 
is probably the first explanation that occurs to every inquirer, but it is soon 
found to be untenable. Take, e. g. the combination given above, i o e u a, which 
includes all tbe most " open ' and " sonorous " sounds in the language, and it is 
found impossible to articulate them in a less number of syllables than there 
are elements. But if Prof. Whitney's explanation were correct, they might all 
be articulated as one syllable. 

2. In the word navy, the sounds? n and v, are just as " continuable" as a and 
y ; in fact they are all alike capable of indefinite prolongation. This only re- 
maining reason, therefore, can have nothing to do with the distinction, any 
more than those which are expressed in the words " open" and '•' sonorous." 

3. Why should the two syllables of the word navy uniformly "make upon 
the ear the impression of two phonetic impulses, " if there be nothing in 
the manner of their formation which corresponds to this impression ? and 
why should the ear of the hearer make the distinction of syllables, if no such 
distinction is made by the mouth of the speaker ? It would seem that here is a 
uniform effect without any cause at all. Is not this uniform impression, made 
upon the ear, of two phonetic impulses, good evidence that the cause of this 
impression is the fact of two such impulses ? If not, what becomes of the 
principle, which none knows better than Prof. Whitney himself, but which he 
seems to have forgotten for the moment, that speech consists wholly of sound, 
and that we truly apprehend its nature by the ear alone ? 

i. In fine, let Prof. Whitney apply his sharp and cultivated ear to the syllabic 
distinction between vile and vial, cream and create, and he can hardly fail to 
perceive the single vocal impulse in the monosyllables, and the double impulse 
in the dissyllables ; and consequently that the juxtaposition of open and close 
sounds has nothing to do with the matter. Or, to take a still stronger case, let 
the sounds pa-a, with a as in far, be articulated in two distinct syllables. 
Here now is a simple repetition of the most "open" and "sonorous" sound 
in the language, with no close sound to divide the word into two syllablea, 
and yet the two are just as distinct as those of apple or battle. 



214 The Elements of Power. 

tion of any kind, and, upon close attention, it will 
be perceived that it opens with a full impulse of the 
voice, and closes with a vocule, or vanishing sound, 
which rises in a continuous slide, a whole tone 
above the opening pitch. But on monosyllabic 
words, on all accented syllables, and on the last 
syllable of every word, this vocule may fall instead of 
rising from the radical pitch ; and it may rise or 
fall through more than one tone or interval. 
Whether it rise or fall, and whether through one or 
more intervals, depends upon the character and 
strength of the emotions to be expressed. This 
fact, as we shall see hereafter, is of primary import- 
ance in the expression of all the emotions and pas- 
sions. 



§ 119. A tonic, or a strong subtonic, enters into every sylla- 
ble, and in no syllable can there be more than one such 
sound. 

1. A full tonic sound forms the basis of every syllable. 

In order that an elementary sound should be 
capable of forming a syllable by itself, or in combi- 
nation with feeble elements, it must be either an 
open sound, i. e. one formed without contact of the 
organs, or one which, in spite of slight contact, has 
nearly or quite a full tonic vocality ; consequently, 
it must be capable of indefinite prolongation. The 
reason of this is that only such sounds can take the 
full radical and vanish, with which every syllable 
opens and closes. Hence a syllable cannot be 
formed of atonic sounds, such as t k s p f , either 



Articulation. 215 

separately, or in any possible combination with each 
other. Hence also a syllable cannot be formed of 
those subtonics which, by reason of the strength of 
their articulation, or check, have but a feeble vocal- 
ity, such as b d g z j, either separately, or in any 
possible combination with each other, or with 
atonies. But each of the tonics is capable of form- 
ing a syllable ; so also are those subtonics which 
are formed without, or with a very slight contact, or 
which, by reason of their anomalous nasal character, 
have a full and strong vocality. The subtonics 
which are thus capable of forming syllables, are y, 
w, r, 1, n, m, which, therefore, are the true and 
proper semi-vowels of the language. Examples of 
their forming syllables will be given under each of 
these elements in pronunciation. 

2. There can be but one tonic in each syllable. 

This is strictly true of the tonics as enumerated 
in the table (§ 112). But it must be borne in mind 
that several of these are properly compound tonics, 
or diphthongs. Thus, a as in fate, i as in pine, and 
oi as in oil, are diphthongs, all closing with the 
sound of i as in pin. O as in old is also regarded 
and treated by the Sanskrit grammarians as un- 
questionably a diphthong, composed of a and u; 
and hence in French, one of the branches of the 
great Sanskritic family, it is still represented by au, 
as in baume, pronounced,bome. Ou as in our rep- 
resents to the eye the elements of which it is com- 
posed. With this explanation, there must be as 
many sjdlables in every word as there are tonics. 
The reasons for this have been already given (§§117 



216 The Elements of Power. 

1, 2); viz. the vocality of the tonics is so full and 
strong that each requires a separate impulse of the 
voice ; and their relation to each other is such that 
no two of them in juxtaposition, can be formed by 
one and the same impulse. Thus no such combina- 
tion as ao, eo, eu, io, oa, ua, uo, can form a single 
syllable. In order that any of these signs should 
represent a single syllable, either one of its elements 
must be suppressed, as e in euphony and yeoman, 
or one of them must represent some other sound, as 
u represents w in persuade. 



§ 120. All the sounds which are capable of forming syllables 
by themselves, are essentially variable in length. 

Properly there is no such thing as an essentially 
long or short vowel. For not only all the vowels, 
but all the sounds which are capable of forming 
syllables by themselves, are essentially variable in 
length, and capable of being prolonged or shortened 
indefinitely. Thus a as in fate, commonly regarded 
as an essentially long vowel, is long in fate and face, 
but short in fatu'itous and f ace'tious. Again, the so- 
called short vowel i as in pin, is short in minute', 
but as long as the longest in sing'ular; whilst the 
so-called long vowel u as in use, in the same word, 
is as short as the shortest. In like manner, a as in 
all, and e as in eve, are long in al'tar, and de'viate, 
and short in auspicious and educe'. 



Aeticulation. 217 



§ 121. The length and strength of syllables depend upon ac- 
cent, emphasis, and the number and vocality of their 
elements. 

We shall find hereafter that syllables are made 
long by the temporal accent, and are still further 
lengthened by emphasis. But besides these two 
causes, the length of a syllable depends upon the 
number of elementary sounds of which it is com- 
posed. When several additional sounds come after 
the tonic, their power to lengthen the syllable gives 
us the explanation of the rule in Latin prosody, that 
a vowel is long by position ; for even when the 
following consonants are not in the same syllable 
as written, they often are as it is uttered by the 
voice. Thus the syllables, length, strength, starch, 
flash, wasp, are essentially long, because they are 
composed of a large number of elementary sounds ; 
whence they cannot properly be made to stand in 
the place of short syllables. But, on the other 
hand, syllables composed of few elements, are not 
necessarily short, because they may be lengthened 
by the accent or emphasis. 

.The strength of syllables, though depending in 
part upon the same causes, is capable Of being dis- 
tinguished from their length. A strong syllable is 
one which is composed of a number of elements 
which have a strong vocality. Thus again, the syl- 
lables, length, strength, worm, bang, whang, loud, 
wrong, are essentially strong, by reason of the num- 
ber of vocal elements, tonics and subtonics, which 
compose them. On the other hand, pet, pit, kit, sit, 



218 The Elements of Power. 

are essentially feeble, because their tonics have the 
feeblest vocality, and their other elements are few, 
and have no vocality at all. 

The importance of all this in metre and style is 
obvious ; and the errors which arise from neglect of 
it are frequent and damaging : — in metre, by the in- 
terchange of long and short syllables ; and in style, 
by the attempt to express a strong thought in a 
word of feeble sound, or an insignificant thought in 
a sonorous word. 

§ 122. The principal causes of bad articulation are, confusion 
of thought, defective organs, want of control over the 
organs, nervous timidity, careless habits, and too much 
care. 

The causes of bad articulation are very numerous 
and complicated. Only the most important are here 
enumerated. 

1. Confusion of thought, or inarticulate thinking. 

We have seen (§ 27) that the character of the 
thinking constantly tends to characterize the vocal 
expression of it. Hence clear and articulate think- 
ing naturally forms or expresses itself in clear and 
articulate speaking. As soon as a man begins to 
think with sharpness and precision, instinctively he 
begins to bite off his words precisely. In fact it is 
the influence of such thinking which brings the or- 
gans of articulation under the perfect control of the 
will. It exerts in time a marked influence even 
upon the physical constitution, size, and shape of 
these organs. Consequently, indiscriminate and 



Articulation. 219 

blurred thinking naturally forms or expresses itself 
in indistinct and blurred articulation. Hence the 
articulation of stupid people, and of tribes in the 
lowest state of barbarism, is commonly very imper- 
fect. The Boobies of the island of Fernando Po, 
communicate with each other in what can hardly 
be called an articulate language. Even the phys- 
ical organs of such people remain unformed and un- 
controlled. The coarse thick tongue, and ill-de- 
fined blubber lip, of every undeveloped or degraded 
type of mankind, seem to be sufficiently accounted 
for by the fact that for thousands of years they 
have been without any sharp distinctions in their 
thoughts, destitute of culture and refinement. Hence 
we may expect that civilization and educated think- 
ing will in time purify the organization, and reduce 
the size of their lips, tongues, and other organs of 
speech, and give them that sharp outline and flexi- 
bility, which are so characteristic of the European 
and civilized man. 

2. Defective organs. 

A defective ear, that is, a sense of hearing which 
fails to discriminate accurately the different elemen- 
tary sounds from each other, is a prevalent cause of 
bad articulation. Hence the different tonics, and 
different classes of sub and atonies, are constantly 
liable to be confounded and interchanged. Thus 
many persons fail to distinguish a as in far, from a 
as in ask, and this latter again from a as in hat. In 
this way, also, 1 and r, d and t, b and p, w and wh 
f and v, th in then and th in thin, are frequently 



220 The Elements of Power. 

confounded. The remedy for this defect is the ex- 
ercises prescribed for the training of the ear 
(§ 105 — 4). In like manner, undue thickness of the 
lips and tongue, enlargement of the tonsils and soft 
palate, imperfect circulation of the breath through 
the nostrils, and other similar defects, often produce 
indistinct and impure articulation. Such defects, 
however, seldom present insuperable difficulties, pro- 
vided the organs be adequately trained to their 
work. 

3. Imperfect control over the articulating organs. 

There are all degrees of control over the organs 
of speech, and few persons have it in perfection. 
Yet the very highest degree of it is necessary to ar- 
ticulate with precision and facility the various com- 
binations of the elementary sounds in English, many 
of which are extremely difficult.* Such combina- 

* In some languages, as e. g. in the Welsh, and other dialects of the Old 
Celtic, in the Greek to a very limited extent, and in the Sanskrit perfectly, 
such difficult combinations of the elementary sounds are avoided by euphonic 
rules, so that whenever two sounds of difficult combination come together, 
either one of them is changed, or a euphonic element is inserted between them 
just as we change a into an before a vowel or a silent h. The word, Sanskrit, 
itself, which is exactly translated by our word perfect, is an example, the s in 
the middle of the word having no significance whatever, being simply a eupho- 
nic insertion, to avoid a difficult combination. These rules in Sanskrit are so 
comprehensive and particular that every combination of sounds, whether diffi- 
cult of articulation, or unpleasant to the cultivated ear of the Brachman, is elimi- 
nated from the language. In English, also, to a far greater extent than ia 
commonly supposed, euphonic influences have determined the combinations 
which actually occur. Thus the word, diphthong, is rightly pronounced dip- 
tliong, in order to avoid the unpleasant combination of ph =/, and th as in thin. 
But the combinations, once established by the authorized pronunciation, are 
the same in English, wherever the word occurs ; we have to take them as they 
come, whether difficult or easy. Nor is this any disadvantage to our mother 
tongue for the highest and best purposes of human speech ; for the Sanskrit, 
though vaunted as ' perfect,' is greatly enfeebled by its euphonic over-refine- 
ment, as might easily be shown. 



Articulation. 221 

tions e. g. as the word, strength (often on account of 
its difficulty pronounced, strenth) stept'st, hush'd'st, 
ask'd'st, cannot be perfectly articulated without a 
high degree — and when several of them occur in 
rapid succession, without the most perfect control 
over the articulating organs. "Where this is want- 
ing, moreover, the different classes of sub and aton- 
ies are constantly liable to be confounded and inter- 
changed with each other. 

4. Nervous timidity. 

The articulation of many speakers is marred by 
undue haste or hurry, arising from nervous timidity 
and agitation. When thus flurried, instead of artic- 
ulating every element with deliberateness and pre- 
cision, they throw out whole mouthfuls of vowels 
and consonants, all jumbled up together. For 
speaking to a great audience, as the most practiced 
and eloquent orators have always felt, is something 
terrible ; it is like hunting the lion single handed. 
But this terror must be overcome by the firm and 
steady exercise of self-control (§ 87). " One must 
be sure of himself before he can be sure of the lion." 

5. Careless habits. 

One of the most fruitful causes of bad articulation 
is mere carelessness, or slovenly habits, in speaking. 
When such habits are once formed, they are, like all 
others, extremely difficult to correct. For the speak- 
er becomes entirely unconscious of his faults, even 
when they are so numerous and aggravated as to 
render a large proportion of his words unintelligible. 
But whoever can be careless or slovenly in address- 



The Elements of Poweb. 






ing a public audience, may thereby know that he is 
naturally incapable of speaking well. 

6. Too much care. 

Sometimes the articulation is marred by over 
nicety ; rendering it finical, pedantic and affected. 
This fault appears most frequently in sounding silent 
letters, the t e. g. in such words as often, soften, 
epistle, apostle, thistle (§ 166-2, (5)). Such faults 
are worse than many that arise from carelessness, 
because they attract more attention, and because 
pedantry or affectation in any form is fatal to elo- 
quence. 



§ 123. The qualities of good articulation are correctness, dis- 
tinctness, purity, ease and elegance. 

These qualities are not always logically distinct, 
but, for the most part, they overlap or imply each 
other. 

1. Correctness refers chiefly to the formation of the 
elementary sounds, and requires that they should 
be rendered, in all their combinations, with the 
utmost accuracy and precision. 

2. Distinctness characterizes that clear and sharp 
distinction of the elements from each other, which 
necessarily results from their precise and accurate 
formation. 

3. Purity requires that the vocal elements should 
be formed of pure tone (§ 168), without admixture of 
noise from the expulsion of non-vocalized breath, 



Aeticulation. 223 

or from the unskillful and harsh operation of the 
articulating organs. 

4. Ease or facility is, of course, the opposite of a 
labored or difficult working of the articulating 
organs, arising from inadequate voluntary control 
over them. 

5. Elegance or beauty of articulation results from 
all the foregoing qualities combined. It implies 
also a certain smooth or liquid flow of the sounds, 
and is in fact the crowning perfection. 



§ 124. Good articulation is an essential element of power in 
delivery. 

The importance of good articulation as an ele- 
ment of power in delivery, cannot be overestimated. 
This may be evinced in the following particulars. 

1. Articulation is tJie differential character of human 
speech. 

The word, language, in its most comprehensive 
sense (§ 2 — 1), includes not only speech, but also 
written and printed and other symbolical represen- 
tations of human thought. Hence each of the arts, 
such as music, painting, sculpture and architecture, 
has its own language. In distinction from all these, 
and also from the inarticulate voices or cries of the 
irrational creation, articulation is the special char- 
acteristic of human speech. Hence " the articu- 
lately speaking men " of Homer, expresses the con- 
ception which the Greeks, the greatest practical 
masters of speech the world has ever seen, formed 



224 The Elements of Powee. 

of humanity. The articulate word of a man is his 
rational nature in its most full and perfect revelation 
— a revelation which is dim and obscure in the de- 
gree in which his articulation is defective. 

2. Good articulation is necessary in order to speak 
and to be understood with ease. 

The question whether the public speaker can de- 
liver himself without exhaustion, so as to be under- 
stood by large audiences with facility, turns upon 
the quality of his articulation, even more than upon 
the strength of his voice. Good articulation will 
enable him to speak with comparatively little effort, 
or fatigue, or expenditure of vital energy, so as to 
be understood with ease by the most numerous as- 
semblies. In such assemblies, and more especially 
if they are in the open air, he cannot make himself 
understood without great distinctness and purity of 
articulation ; his speaking will be unintelligible ; or 
if not absolutely so, yet the effort on the part of the 
audience to understand will be so great that they 
will soon become wearied, and cease to give their 
attention. In the meantime, the strain upon his 
own organs, especially those of the breath and 
throat, will be so great that it may inflict upon them 
irreparable injury, and break down the strongest 
health. 

3. Distinct articulation is essential to the expression 
of the distinctions of thought ; and in this, the consonants 
are of more importance than the vowels. 

The distinctions of sound made by the articulat- 
ing organs, are the most significant of all symbols, 



Aeticulation. 225 

whether natural or artificial, for the expression of 
the distinctions of thought, L e. all the various states 
and operations of the intellect. For this purpose, 
the consonants are of far greater importance than 
the vowels, for the reason that the differentiating 
action of the organs in the formation of the con- 
sonants, is greater than in the vowels. Hence the 
consonants require to be formed with the utmost 
precision and distinctness, and to be jointed to- 
gether in syllables and words with the utmost pur- 
ity, in order to symbolize and express the subtle 
distinctions of precise and articulate thinking. 
Feebly rendered, they express feebleness of the 
intellectual operations. The omission of any of 
them, as that of f = v in of, or one of them put for an- 
other, as b for p in baptism, or w for wh in why 
and when, or a confused and blurred utterance of 
them, is the natural symbol and expression of the 
want of discrimination and precision of thought 
(§ 122-1). 

4. Good articulation is essential to the adequate ex- 
pression of emotion and passion; and here tlue vowels 
are of the greatest importance. 

It is true, indeed, that the gross and sensual and 
violent passions may be expressed, to a certain extent, 
by inarticulate cries, such as those of mere animals. 
Uncontrollable passion naturally runs into confused 
articulation. But all the delicate modifications and 
distinctions of emotion, all its nicer shades and 
variations, and all passion that is held under con- 
trol — in a word, all feelings which are distinctively 
human, require for their adequate expression, the 



226 The Elements of Power. 

purest and most perfect articulation. Thus anger, 
scorn, contempt, hatred, and all such passions, when 
not uncontrollable, express themselves by sharpening 
and hardening the consonantal sounds ; whilst love, 
pity, sorrow, and all the tender and gentle emotions, 
give these sounds a peculiar softness and smooth- 
ness, and a certain liquid flow to the whole utter- 
ance. In the expression of emotion and passion 
the vowels are more significant than the consonants. 
One reason of this is that they correspond to the na- 
ture of emotion more closely, as being less sharply 
distinguished from each other than the consonants ; 
which more properly correspond to the sharp and 
precise distinctions of thought. Hence it is by 
means of the vowel sounds, in all their ever vary- 
ing qualities of voice, and changes of pitch, 
time and force, that the passions of the speaker's 
soul pour themselves forth, and are communicated 
to the audience, with the greatest fullness and 
power. 



CHAPTEE IV. 

ACCENTUATION. 

§ 125. Accentuation consists in giving distinction or promi- 
nence to particular syllables, by increasing* the time, or 
stress, or by raising* the pitch, of the accented syllable. 

There are at least these three ways of rendering 
any particular syllable more prominent than the 
others with which it is immediately connected ; and 
each of these methods may be employed separately, 
or any two, or all of them, may be combined in one 
and the same accent. 



§ 126. The temporal accent consists in giving* an increase of 
time to the syllable?; it is preferred by syllables which 
end in tonic sounds. 

Thus in the words, dai'ry, ju'ry, vo'cal, it will be 
readily observed that about double the amount of 
time is given to the former syllables, as compared 
with the latter. All syllables which end in tonic 
sounds have a decided preference for this form of 
the accent ; in other words, this is their leading or 
predominant form. The reason is that all the tonics, 
being open sounds, that is, formed by the organs 
not in contact, and having the highest degree of vo- 



228 The Elements of Power. 

cality, are capable of being indefinitely prolonged. 
This reason applies also to the subtonic feeble 
checks, and to the nasals, though with less force, 
inasmuch as they have a lower degree of vo cality ; 
and hence syllables which end in these sounds, fre- 
quently take this form of the accent, as in the words, 
an'vil, bev'el, beaming. The temporal accent read- 
ily combines with that of increased stress, and some- 
times with that of the raised pitch. 



§127. The stress accent consists in giving: increased stress of 
voice to the syllable; it is preferred by syllables ending 
in subtonic sounds. 

Thus we give about double the ordinary stress or 
force of voice to the accented syllables of the follow- 
ing words, bab'ble, mad'der, bag'ging. This is the 
leading form of the accent in syllables that end in 
subtonic sounds, especially those which cannot be 
indefinitely prolonged, and which have therefore a 
comparatively feeble vocality. Instinctively the 
voice seems to make a greater effort, in anticipation 
of its being so soon and suddenly checked, or 
stopped off, by the strong articulation in which the 
syllable ends. Increased stress is the most apt way 
of distinguishing syllables which end with such 
sounds. These, however, are not incapable of the 
temporal accent in combination with their own, for 
the reason that the increase of time can be laid 
upon the tonic which precedes the closing subtonic 
sound. 



Accentuation. 229 



§ 12S. The pitch accent consists in raising the pitch of the 
syllable ; it is preferred by syllables which end in atonic 
sounds. 

In this case, the pitch of the syllable is raised a 
full tone, or one degree of the musical scale, above 
the other syllables. This also may be readily ob- 
served in such words as bat tie, capit'ulate, refrac'- 
tory. This is the leading form of the accent in syl- 
lables which end in atonic sounds, for the reason 
that such sounds having no vocality, and being 
formed by mere articulations of the whispering 
breath, are extremely unpleasant when unduly pro- 
longed, where they are capable of it, and when too 
much distinguished by increased stress. Yet this 
form of the accent may be combined with either or 
both of the others, by laying the increased time, or 
stress, or both, upon the tonic of the syllable. 

§ 129. Accents are of primary, secondary and tertiary de- 
grees of time and stress. 

Besides the preceding distinctions, the accent 
may be of greater or less increase of time and 
force ; and from the fact of such variations, we 
have the distinctions of primary, secondary and 
tertiary accents. 

1. The primary is the accent of greatest increase 
of time, or stress, or of both these combined. 
Words of two syllables take only this accent, as in 
the words, manly mer'cy caprice'. 



230 The Elements of Poweb. 

2. The secondary accent is one of less increase, 
and is, as it were, the echo of the primary. It oc- 
curs on words of three syllables, when the primary 
is on the first or last, and on words of four or more 
syllables ; as in the following, practical', palpitate', 
pur"ify', accentuate', facilitate', com'pensa"tion. 

3. The tertiary is of the least increase, and is as 
if the echo should repeat itself in a still feebler form. 
It occurs on words of five, six, or more syllables, as 
in tran"sobstan'tia"'tion. 

This image of the echo, however, is so far inaccu- 
rate, that the primary accent does not always pre- 
cede, but is often preceded by either or both the 
others. The primary is, of course, the most import- 
ant, and is the one always meant when the accent 
is spoken of, except when either of the others is 
specified. 

§ 130. The accent has four functions ; it gives unity and va- 
riety to the sound of words, expresses their diiferent and 
contrasted meanings, and constitutes the principal ele- 
ment of rhythm. 

1. It gives to words of more than one syllable unity 
and variety of sound. 

This is the most important function of the accent. 
For every such word in English takes one, and but 
one primary accent, which gives distinction or pro- 
minence to the accented syllable over all the others, 
and draws them into a certain relation of subordina- 
tion, and dependence upon it. This unifies the 
sound of the whole word, and thus enables it to 



Accentuation. 231 

symbolize and express that unity of thought, which, 
as we shall hereafter see, is an essential character 
of words. Consequently in the English language, 
such words have a far higher degree of unity, and 
in so far are more perfect as words, than in those 
other languages which are properly destitute of the 
accent. The manner in which the different accents, 
primary, secondary and tertiary, with their various 
elements of time, stress and pitch, contribute to that 
full and rich variety of sound, which is characteristic 
of English words, is sufficiently obvious. 

2. It expresses the different meanings of words which, 
iv it ho vt the accent, icould have the same sound. 

We have a large class of words in English which 
are composed of precisely the same elementary 
sounds, and are represented by the same alphabetic 
symbols, but which differ widely in their grammat- 
ical character and meaning. Such are all the words 
which are used both as nouns or adjectives, and as 
verbs. Now this whole difference of character and 
meaning is commonly, and the tendency of the lan- 
guage is such that probably, in no long time, it will 
be uniformly, expressed by accenting the words dif- 
ferently. We have examples of this in the words, 
tor'ment and torment', fre'quent and frequent', inter- 
dict and interdict', at 'tribute and attribute. 

3. It expresses the contrasted meanings of similar 
words. 

When the meanings of any two similar words in 
the same sentence are contrasted, or opposed to 
each other, the accent enables us to express this 



232 The Elements of Power. 

contrast or opposition in a corresponding difference 
of sound. This function is of such importance that 
it justifies and requires a change of the accent from 
its normal position on one or both of the words, as 
in the following expressions : " He must in'crease, 
l}ut I must de'crease;" jus'tice and injustice, giv'ing 
and forgiving, probability not plau'sibility. 

4. It is the principal element of rhythm. 

The rhythm, both of prose and poetry, depends in 
English chiefly upon such a distribution of accented 
and unaccented syllables as is adapted to the ex- 
pression of the sentiment, and as makes a pleasing 
impression upon the ear. We see this in the fol- 
lowing prose sentence from the address of the Apos- 
tle Paul to the Athenian Areopagus : " Whom', there'- 
fore, ye ig'norantly wor'ship, him' declare' I un'to 
you ;" also in the following words of the Queen in 
Hamlet, strewing funereal flowers upon the corpse 
of Ophelia. 

Sweets' to the sweet' — farewell'. 
I hop'ed thou should'st have been' my Ham'let's wife ; 
I thought' thy bride'-bed t' have deck'ed, sweet maid/ 
And not' t' have strew'ed thy grave'. 

The change of a single accent in these quotations 
would essentially mar their superb rhythm. Accent 
enters deeply also into the nature and effects of mel- 
ody and harmony in discourse, by which the sonnd 
of the words is made to fall musically upon the ear, 
and to symbolize and echo, as it were, the sense 
which they are intended to express. 



Accentuation. 233 

§ 131. The accent gives the En lish language a great superi- 
ority over others which are destitute of it. 

This fourfold function of the accent gives to the 
English language a vast superiority over the French, 
and all others which are destitute of this element of 
expression. For it imparts to all words of more 
than one syllable, a much greater unity and variety 
of sound — it renders them much more precise and 
perspicuous in meaning — it renders contrasted words 
and phrases far more antithetical and expressive— 
and it gives to the rhythm, both of poetry and prose, 
far greater fullness, richness and symbolical power 
— than were otherwise possible. 

§ 182. Rules for placing the accent express the tendencies of 
the language. 

It is hardly possible to lay down precise and inva- 
riable laws of accentuation ; but there are certain 
tendencies of the language, which approach more or 
less nearly to the nature of laws, and which require 
to be exhibited. 

§ 133. Monosyllables commonly take no accent. 

This rule requires to be qualified in the four fol- 
lowing cases. 

1. Monosyllables which arc essentially long, from the 
large number of their elementary sounds (§ 121), 
such as dart, harm, realm, are undistinguishable 
from syllables which are lengthened by the tempo- 
ral accent. 



234 The Elements of Power. 

2. Monosyllables essentially strong, from the strong 
vocality of their elements (§ 121), such as mourn, 
glean, blaze, are undistinguishable from syllables 
with the accent of increased stress. 

3. Emphatic monosyllables include the accent in 
their emphasis. 

4. Rhythm sometimes requires the accentuation of 
monosyllables. 

This is true of the rhythm both of prose and po- 
etry. In the latter, however, it is very necessary to 
guard against error. For where perfect regularity 
in the rhythm requires a monosyllable to be accent- 
ed, it is often the intention of the poet to leave it 
without the accent, in order to secure a more full 
( and copious rhythmic variety. This remark applies 
chiefly to articles, prepositions, conjunctions, pro- 
nouns, adverbs, and all the monosyllabic forms of 
substantive and auxiliary verbs. An unskillful read- 
er would be likely to spoil the poet's rhythm in the 
following lines, by accenting the words, is and in. 

There' is a pleas'ure in the pathless woods' ; 
There' is a rap'ture on the lonely shore'. 



§ 134. All words of more than one syllable are accented. . 

The only exception to this rule is that rhythm 
sometimes requires an insignificant word of two 
syllables to stand without the accent ; as the word, 
upon, in the following line. 

Since' upon night' so sweet' such aw'ful morn' could rise'. 



Accentuation. 235 



§ 135. Words of Anglo-Saxon origin commonly take the 
accent on the root syllable. 

Of course, these are not the only words which are 
thus accented, but this rule applies to them more 
generally than to others. This is one of the causes 
of the superior strength of the Anglo-Saxon ele- 
ments of the language ; for it always enfeebles a 
word when the accent falls on any other than its 
radical syllable. The following are examples under 
the rule. 

Above', adown', affright', ba'ker, back'wardly, black'ness, care'- 
ful, death'liness, eat'ing, fear' fid, gal)le, hearf ily, i'dleness, jum'- 
ble, kind'liness, landless, marketable, nip'ple, own'er, pic'kle, 
quirk'ish, raging, scan'ty, thievish, ud'der, wretch'edly, without,' 
youth'ful. 

§ 136. Dissyllables transferred** from the French commonly 
take the accent on the last syllable. 

Also a large number of polysyllables of the same 
origin are accented on the last syllable. 

Allies', balloon', brocade', burlesque', cartouch', cartoon', co- 
quette', dessert', detail', discourse', escheat', finance', finesse', 
grimace', halloo', illume', juppon', lampoon', maintain', morass', 
oppose',, parterre', research', resource', romance', severe', tinaile', 
vendue'. ** 



§ 137. Dissyllables, which as nouns or adjectives are accented 
on the first syllable, are as verbs frequently accented on 
the last. 

This is the case also with a number of words of 
more than two syllables. The analogy of the rule 

* Transferred i. e. adopted with little or no change. 



236 The Elements of Power. 

applies, moreover, in changing the accent on some 
words, where it does not transfer it to the last syl- 
lable, as in attribute and attribute, arsenic and 
arsenic, counterbalance and counterbalance. In 
the case of arsenic, and some other words, it distin- 
guishes nouns from adjectives. It is necessary, 
however, to guard against this clear tendency of the 
language, so as not to apply the rule to words 
which, according to the best usage, have not yet 
been brought under it ; such as the words, per 'feet 
and content', in which the accent is the same in all 
cases. Contents, in the plural, will bear the accent 
on either syllable. The following words are exam- 
ples of this change of accent, that is, they are ac- 
cented either on the first or last syllable, according 
to their grammatical character and meaning ; thus 
ab'ject or abject', and so of the others. 

Abject, absent, abstract, accent, affix, augment, bombard, ce- 
ment, colleague, collect, compact, complot, compound, compress, 
concert, concrete, conduct, confine, conflict, conserve, consort, 
contest, contract, contrast, convent, converse, convert, convict, 
convoy, countercharge, countercharm, countercheck, counter- 
mand, countermarch, countermine, counterpoise, countersign, 
desert, descant, discount, digest, escort, essay, export, extract, 
exile, ferment, foretaste, frequent, import, impress, incense, inlay, 
interchange, interdict, insult, object, overcharge, overflow, over- 
match, overthrow, perfume, permit, prefix, prelude, premise, pre- 
sage, present, produce, project, progress, protest, rebel, record, 
refuse, reprimand, subject, survey, torment, traject, transfer, 
transport, undress, upstart. 



§ 138. Words terminating in ia, iac, ial, ian, efy, ify,ety, ity, 
eous, ious, sion, tion, athy, acal, ical, fluent, fluous, gonal, 
graphy, itude, logy, loquy, meter, metry, parous, pliyl- 



Accentuation. 237 

lous, tomy, (together with tive and commonly ic, preceded 
by a consonant) take the accent on the preceding syllable. 

There are a few exceptions to this comprehensive 
rule, such as ad'jective, ar'senic, arithmetic, bish'- 
opric, cath'olic, chol'eric, elegi'ac, ephem'eric, her'- 
etic, lu'natic, politic rhet'oric, splen'etic, sub'stan- 
tive, tur'meric, and perhaps, pleth'oric, which, how- 
ever, according to the best authorities, should be 
accented, pletho'ric. 

The following are examples under the rule. 

Affluent, algebraic, alphabetical, ammo'nia, anat'omy, aph'yl- 
lous, attrac'tive, barba'rian, biol'ogy, cheru'bic, climacteric, con- 
ta'geous, conten'tious, coura'geous, cu'bical, declara'tion, demo'niac, 
demoni'acal, diag'onal, dissen'sious, diph'yllous, diversity, edify, 
epidemic, epidemical, empiric, fanatic, fanatical, farina'ceous, 
for'titude, geol'ogy, geological, geom'etry, geomet'rical, geom'eter, 
geography, geographical, harmonic, harmonlcal, heli'acal, heter- 
ophyllous, homeop'athy, impe'rial, invec'tive, Jacobinic, Jacob- 
inical, liberality, malleability, meridian, metallic, mollify, mu'si- 
cal, Noa'chian, ovip'arous, presump'tive, phlegmatic, quan'tity, 
rar'efy, scientific, scorbu'tic, scorbu'tical, solitude, solil'oquy, 
superfluous, sym'pathy, sympathetic, triph'yllous, vivip'arous. 

139. Words of three or more syllables terminating in eal, 
eroiiSj orous, inous, ulous, take the accent on the preced- 
ing- syllable. 

There are a very few exceptions to this rule, such 
as cano'rous, sono'rous, and, perhaps, deco'rous, in- 
deco'rous, which, however, on good authority, may 
be accented as in the following examples. 

Bo'real, corpo'real, carniv'orous, cu'neal, dec'orous, empyreal, 
ethe'rial, fune'real, herbiv'orous, heteroge'nial, homoge'nial, in- 
decorous, incorpo'real, lac'teal, lin'eal, or' deal, sed' ulous, vocifer- 
ous, volu'minous. 



238 The Elements of Power. 



§ 140. Words accented on the first syllable. 

Accessary, accessory, admirable, advertise, aggrandizement, 
aperture, behemoth, Bernardine, blasphemous, capillary, character, 
characterize, compromise, complaisance, corollary., construe, con- 
trary, contumacy, contumely, deficit, designate, desultory, desue- 
tude, disputable, disputant, diverse, dynasty, exemplary,, exercise, 
exquisite, epocha, fallacy, gratitude, harass, impetus, industry, 
integral, interest, interested, interesting, judicature, lamentable, 
legislative, legislator, legislature, maxillary, mercantile, miscel- 
lany, mischievous, oasis, pedestal, perfected, posthumous, pres- 
bytery, puissant, recognize, recreate, recreative, repertory, sepul- 
chre, sinister, specialty, speculative, towards, vehement, vehe- 
mently, yesterday. 

§ 141. Words accented on the second syllable. 

Abdomen, advertisement, albumen, alumen, acumen, anchovy, 
antipodes, aroma, aruspice, aspirant, asylum, Augean, bissextile, bi- 
tumen, camelopard, catastrophe, centrifugal, centripetal, ceramic, 
Cerberian, cerulean, clandestine, clandestinely, committee, compen- 
sate, component, computable, concentrate, condensate, condolence, 
confiscate, consummate, contemplate, contemplative, coquetry, de- 
corum, defalcate, demonstrate, deponent, devastate, diploma, diplo- 
macy, diplomatist, distribute, divertise, divertisement, enervate, ex- 
ponent, extirpate, fraternize, Herculean, horizon, idea, imbecile, in- 
culcate, inculpate, indisputable, inquiry, irrefragable, interpolate, 
interstice, intrepid, liceum, marmorean, misanthropy, museum , ob- 
durate, obduracy, opponent, Orion, pantheon, philanthropy, pilas- 
ter, precedence, Promethean, promulgate, pygmean, recital, recus- 
ant, remonstrate, respiratory, respirable, restorative, retributive, se- 
questrate, subsidence, Tartarean, tiara, ubiquist, vesicular, xerodes, 
zygoma. 

§ 142. Words accented on the third syllable. 

Atheneum, Atlantean, acquiescent, bastinado, benefactor, circum- 
jacent, coadjutor, coriander, colossean, Colosseum, convalescent, 
desperado, empyrean, Epicurean, European, evanescent, hyperbor- 
ean, hymenean, ignoramus, literati, simultaneous, subterranean, 
ultimatum. 



CHAPTEE V. 

PKONUNCIATION. 

§ 143. Articulation and accentuation are the two elements of 
pronunciation ; the former is the more controlling ele- 
ment. 

When a word is properly articulated, and properly 
accented, it is rightly pronounced. Articulation, 
however, is the more fundamental and controlling 
element. The formation of the elementary sounds, 
and of syllables, is obviously the most essential ele- 
ment of the formation of words. Also the articulat- 
ing organs come into play in jointing syllables 
together to form words, as truly as in forming the 
elementary sounds, and in jointing them together 
into syllables. Moreover, a groat number of words 
in English are monosyllables, in which case, articu- 
lation is identical with pronunciation. Notwith- 
standing, however, that articulation and accentua- 
tion, taken together, are precisely equivalent to pro- 
nunciation, the propriety, and even the necessity of 
treating pronunciation under a separate head, will be 
obvious from what is to follow. 



240 The Elements of Power. 

§ 144. Pronunciation is the oral speaking of words. 

"We have seen that language, in the deepest sense 
of the word, is identical with oral speech. Hence it 
is that what we have to keep our minds intent upon, 
in all linguistic studies, is the sounds themselves, as 
distinguished from their literal symbols. This is 
the clue which guides us to the true nature, and 
inmost secret of language. For the letters of the 
alphabet are mere symbols (often extremely clumsy, 
and always inadequate) of the elementary sounds of 
which words are composed. And even a perfect 
symbolization, if that were possible, would be only a 
mechanical contrivance, of which the highest use 
would be that of serving as a means of reproducing 
the sounds represented. But speech is an organic 
and vital development of the laws of thought — 
thought striving to embody itself more and more 
perfectly in oral sounds. When, therefore, the literal 
symbols are regarded and treated as elements and 
powers in the formation of words, language becomes 
incomprehensible. 

§ 145. Pronunciation ought not to be conformed to the sym- 
bolization. 

There is no more fruitful source of errors in pro- 
nunciation than the attempts, which are constantly 
made, to conform the sounds to the spelling of the 
words. All such attempts proceed upon a false 
principle, and are essentially impracticable. This 
may be evinced from the following considerations. 



Pronunciation. 241 

1. Such attempts reverse the original method of pro- 
cedure by which language was reduced to writing. 

Every language, before it was reduced to writing, 
had its own pronunciation as fully developed and 
perfected as it became afterwards. The original 
procedure of writing down a language at first, is, of 
course, that of conforming the sy Embolization to the 
sounds, not the sounds to the symbolization. The 
attempt to conform the pronunciation to the spelling, 
therefore, reverses this whole process, and hence it 
can never fail, in the degree in which it is success- 
ful, to mar and deform the language. 

2. Pronunciation cannot be fixed in any symboliza- 
tion. 

Speech, because it is an organic and vital devel- 
opment, is always in a process of change ; it is 
always moving on the line of the development of 
thought and life. Hence the pronunciation of a 
language can never be permanently fixed ; and if it 
could, it would tend to arrest human progress. The 
symbolization, on the contrary, because it is a mere 
conventional and mechanical contrivance, constantly 
tends to become indurated, and difficult of modifica- 
tion. Hence the necessary divergence, in the course 
of time, of the pronunciation from the symbolization. 
The causes which produce this effect are always at 
work in living tongues which have been reduced to 
writing. Their ultimate result is that the written 
becomes a dead language ; for the life of a language 
always follows the sound, and not the symbol. Un- 
der the influence of these causes for thousands of 



242 The Elements of Power. 

years, the spoken language and dialects of China 
have become so different from the written and class- 
ical Chinese, that the most perfect knowledge of 
either is hardly an introduction to the other. For 
beyond a question, when the sounds of the classical 
Chinese were first reduced to writing (and for ages 
subsequently) the written language was the same 
with the spoken ; but the pronunciation gradually 
receding from the symbolization, the present result 
has been at last reached. The case is precisely sim- 
ilar with the classical Sanskrit, and the living dia- 
lects of that family which are now spoken by the 
people of India. Thus it was also that the Latin 
became a dead language, and that the Romance 
tongues grew up under it. And the same causes 
have been at work for centuries in these last men- 
tioned tongues, until now in French e. g. the spell- 
ing is hardly any clue to the pronunciation. What 
would be the consequence if the French people 
should attempt to pronounce their words as they are 
spelled ! 

§ 146. The symbolization ought to be conformed to the pro- 
nunciation. 

This is now becoming so obvious to those who 
have given the subject adequate attention, as to 
leave little doubt that the change, with whatsoever 
temporary inconvenience it may be attended, cannot 
be much longer delayed. The objections which 
have been urged against it are rapidly giving way 
in the minds of our ablest scholars, such as Max 



Pronunciation. 243 

Muller, and Professor Whitney, before a more full 
recognition of the fundamental principle that the 
essence of language is significant sound, and before 
the urgent necessity pressing more and more heayily 
upon us. For it is now demonstrable that if this 
change be not effected, we must in time have a writ- 
ten language totally different from the spoken one, 
like the Chinese ; in other words, classical English 
must become a dead language. Our symbolization, 
having been radically defective at first, has become 
a perfect chaos, which defies all attempts to reduce 
it to order, and from which it is not only impossible 
to gather the true sounds, or pronunciation of the 
words, but which exerts a mighty influence to lead 
us all astray. For we have, in the first place, a vast 
number of symbols, which represent no sound at all, 
that is, silent letters ; few of which, if any, were silent 
when the language was first reduced to writing. In 
the second place, most of the symbols represent each 
a variety- of different sounds ; and, in the third place, 
the same sound is often represented by a great 
number of different symbols. The sound of i as in 
pin e. g. is represented by as many as fifteen differ- 
ent signs ; and- the case is nearly as Bad with each 
of the other nineteen or twenty vowels and diph- 
thongs in the language. All the peculiar difficulties 
of English pronunciation arise from this chaotic 
state of our symbolization. For there is no such 
confusion in the sounds themselves. Here we 
shall find law and order and beauty, as in all the 
developments and manifestations of organic life — a 



244 The Elements oe Power. 

regularity and certainty, in fact, like that of instinct. 
For oral speech is a true product of the instincts of 
reason in man. 

§ 147. A word is an articulate sound expressing a single 
thought. 

A single articulate sound expressing a single 
thought, is the differential character of a word. 

1. A word expresses a single thought. 
A sound which does not express any thought or 

sense, is not a word ; nor can any word express 
more than one thought at the same time, or in the 
same connection. This one thought, however, may 
be composed of any number of different elements, 
but these will always be expressed in a unified or 
generalized form, as in such words as horse, man, 
world, thing. 

2. The means of expressing this unity of thought is a 
corresponding unity of sound. 

In order that this unity of thought may be ada- 
quately expressed, it requires a corresponding unity 
of sound, which, therefore, is essential to the nature 
of a word. Eut this unity of sound, as in the case 
of the thought which it expresses, may be composed 
of many different elements, as in the words, flail, 
education, polysyllable. 

§ 148. There are four causes of unity of sound in words, the 
single impulse of the voice, the primary accent, the pause 
before and after the word, and the transition sounds. 

Of these four distinct causes of unity of sound in 






Pronunciation. 245 

words, the first is limited to monosyllables, the sec- 
ond to polysyllables, and the last, two are common 
to all words. 

1. Monosyllables are 'pronounced with a single vocal 
impulse. 

This fact has been already exhibited in the dis- 
cussion of the syllable (§116). It is the most influ- 
ential cause of all that contribute to give unity of 
sound to words ; and taken together with the others 
that co-operate with it to produce the same result, it 
gives the highest degree of unity to monosyllables, 
and thus renders them the most perfect of all 
words. 

2. Polysyllables take but one primary accent. 

This cause gives unity of sound to all words of 
more than one syllable. After what manner it does 
this has been already explained in treating of the 
functions of the accent (§ 130 — 1). 

3. Every word is preceded and followed by a pause. 

This is the case in all connected English speak- 
ing. The pause may be very slight, so as to be al- 
most insensible, but it is still there, and may com- 
monly be perceived by a good ear, with close atten- 
tion. It is admirably symbolized in writing and 
printing by the little blank spaces between the 
words. Its function is to separate each word from 
the others with which it stands connected in speech, 
to circumscribe it, so to speak, and thus to give it a 
defined unity of sound. This cause of unity is, of 
course, common to all words. 



246 The Elements of Power. 

4. The elements of each word are cemented together 
by transition sounds. 

These transition sounds, which are produced by 
the voice in passing from one element to another, 
have never been treated of. Professor Day sup- 
poses himself to be the first who has ever allude d 
to them. Yet they constitute a considerable pro- 
portion of the sound of almost every word. We 
shall find that they will enable us to explain a great 
number of the apparent anomalies of English pro- 
nunciation. 

(1). Transition sounds are made by the voice in 
passing from one element of a word to another. 
That there are such sounds becomes evident upon 
a little attention. For whilst the organs are 
passing from their position in the formation of one 
element to that of the next in the same word, the 
voice or breath is not suspended, but continues to 
flow out, except in the case of the hard checks, g, d, 
b, k, t, p. Thus in the word, ear, the a being silent, 
the sound of e passes into that of r by a vocal 
transition, which is neither that of e nor r, but par- 
takes of the nature of both. Between different syl- 
lables the transition sound is still more sensible, as 
between e and a of the word, create. Frequently 
these sounds are identical with some of the elements 
themselves, in which case they are sometimes ex- 
pressed. Thus in the word Iowa e. g. w represents 
nothing but the transition sound made by the voice 
in passing from o to a, and the word is pronounced 
exactly as if it were spelled Ioa. Commonly, how- 






Pronunciation. 247 

ever, these sounds are not represented at all in the 
spelling. Thus in the words, nature, virtue — pro- 
nounced, natshure, virtshue — the transition sound 
between the two syllables is precisely that of sh, 
but it does not appear in the spelling of either word. 
These transition sounds are aptly symbolized by 
the little intermediate strokes which connect the 
different letters in current writing; and it would 
seem that printing would be a more perfect symbol 
than it now is, if its letters were joined together in 
a similar manner 

(2.) A principal function of these transition sounds 
is to give unity to the sound of each word. These 
transition sounds are never heard between one word 
and another, or only in faulty articulation; other- 
wise there would be no pause before and after every 
word. But between the different elements and syl- 
lables of each word they are very frequently, and 
often necessarily introduced. The effect of this is to 
cement the elementary sounds and syllables togeth- 
er, thus giving wholeness and unity to the sound of 
every word, as the bricks or stones of a building 
are cemented together with mortar. This cause of 
unity is also common to all words. 

§ 119. Pronunciation is an important element of power in 
delivery. 

A correct and elegant pronunciation is an ele- 
ment of power in delivery which can hardly be 
overestimated. It has been said that it makes the 
words of a speaker like new gold coin, as they drop 



248 The Elements of Power. 

from the mint, bright and clean-cut, with their 
legends or superscriptions so plain that they can be 
read without effort, and the value of the coin recog- 
nized at sight ; whilst bad pronunciation makes the 
words like old, rusty, defaced coin, with their 
legends blurred or worn away, so that it requires the 
study and skill of an antiquarian or numatist to de- 
termine their value. 

§ 150. The pronunciation here given follows the best English 
and American authorities. 

English pronunciation, when considered apart 
from the totally inadequate and chaotic symboliza- 
tion, is not of so uncertain or anomalous a charac- 
ter as is commonly supposed. Almost all its ap- 
parent anomalies arise from the groundless notion 
that somehow the sounds ought to be conformed to 
the spelling, instead of the spelling to the sounds. 
Considered apart from this cause of difficulty, it is 
probably as regular, and as capable of being re- 
duced under general euphonic laws, as that of any 
other language. The examples given below to esta- 
blish such laws, are selected mostly from words that 
are often mispronounced, of which the true pronun- 
ciation is here given. But it should be distinctly un- 
derstood that no new or unauthorized pronuncia- 
tions have been introduced, except in a few cases of 
apparent inadvertency of the best English and 
American authorities, which, with this exception, 
have been uniformly followed. But where these 
authorities differ among themselves, and it has be- 



Pbonunciatton. 249 

come necessary to choose between them, the laws 
of euphony have been allowed to influence the 
choice. What authorities have been followed in 
any particular case, may commonly be seen by refer- 
ence to "Worcester's large dictionary ; which is 
here recommended as, upon the whole, the best ex- 
hibition of the orthoepy of the language. 

§ 151. The tonics in a, from the greatest to the least open- 
ness of the organs, are as in arm, all, ask, hat, care, 
fate. 

These six tonics are here arranged in a regular 
series (except in the case of a as in all) with the 
organs constantly flattening and approaching to 
contact. The exception might properly be placed 
in another series, but is retained here for reasons 
given below. The sign here chosen for these sounds, 
Lamely, the letter a, has been found the most con- 
r enient for practical treatment, although they are 
not unfrequently otherwise represented. 

1. A as in arm, represented by a, an, e, ea. 

This sound is formed with the mouth simply open, 
the organs in their natural position, and farther 
apart than in any other sound of the language. 
Consequently it is least modified by the action of 
the organs, and has the strongest vocality of all. It 
is often confounded with a as in care, and in all, and 
with o as in nor ; as in psaalm or psawlm, for psalm, 
and port, stort, for part, start. The signs by which 
it is represented in the following examples are in 
italic letters. 



250 The Elements of Power. 

Are, aunt, avant, balm, bath, calf, calm, clerk, craunch, daunt, 
dauntless, embark, flaunt, gape, gaunt, gauntlet, guano, guard, 
half, halve, haunt, haunch, hark, hearken, impart, jaunt, jaun- 
dice, knarl, laugh, laundry, laundress, Ma, maunch, maunder, 
nard, Pa, pariah, palm, psalm, qualm, rajah, ragout', saunter, 
sergeant, stanch, staunch, sulta'na, taunt, upbar, varnish, yard, 
zena'na. 

2. A as in all — a, au, aw, oa, on. 

Formed by rounding the aperture and cavity of 
the mouth a very little from the position of the pre- 
ceding a as in arm, and by throwing the resonance 
of the voice farther back. The sound is very nearly 
related to o as in nor. It is placed here because it 
is formed by a very slight modification of the posi- 
tion of the organs from the preceding, and because 
it is most frequently represented by a, either alone, 
or in combination with other signs. 

-Aider, alderman, almanac, altar, alterative, appall, audacious, 
auspicious, aught, avaunt, aiol, ball, baiol, bought, brought, 
broad, call, calk, chalk, daub, enthrall, fall, falcon, fought, 
groat, hall, hale, halter, haul, jaw), -law, maw, naught, nought, 
ought, pall, pau>, paunch, quart, quarter, rate, saucer, sought, 
thought, vault, vaunt, want, wrought, yaiol. 

3. A as in ash — a, au. 

Formed by flattening the mouth cavity a very 
little from its position in a as in arm, and by draw- 
ing the corners of the mouth a little farther from 
each other — an intermediate sound between a in 
arm, and a in hat. It is most frequently followed 
by nasal or atonic sounds, except when it ends a syl- 
lable. An unaccented a at the end of a word usu- 
ally represents this sound. In some sections of the 



Pronunciation. 251 

country it is confounded with a in arm, in others 
with a in care. 

^4ft, after, aghast, alas, Anna, answer, ant, bask, basket, blanch, 
brass, cast, castle, clasp, craft, dance, draft, draught, enchant, 
example, fast, flask, ghastly, graft, grant, grass, haft, hasp, idea, 
lance, last, mask, mass, mast, nasty, pant, pass, passable, pastor, 
quaff, raft, sample, slander, slant, task, vast, waft. 

4. A as in liat — a, ai. 

Formed by a position of the mouth organs differ- 
ing from the preceding precisely as that differs from 
a in arm. It is about as far removed, on the same 
line of change, from a in ask, as that is from a in 
arm. It is often confounded with the preceding, 
and with the following. 

^4bba, abbey, apple, actual, adapt, ag'ile apparel, are'na, bade, 
band, bank, bland, blandish, blank, cabal', can, cant, dandle, 
dandy, er'rant, fan, flank, frank, frantic, gather, glacier, hand, 
jam, kra'al, lamb, land, man, maintain', national, or' deal, Or- 
leans, parentage, patent (noun), patronage, plaid, railery, ran- 
dom, rant, rational, sacrament, sacrifice, syllable tandem, 
vantage, Zante. 

5. A as in care — a, ai, ay, e, ea, ey. 

Formed by still further flattening the mouth, and 
drawing the corners a little more apart — differing 
very slightly from the preceding. The distinctive 
character of this tonic seems to be mostly due to the 
influence of the peculiar subtonic r, by which it is 
nearly or quite uniformly followed. 

Aiv, apparent, bare, bear, chair, chary, dare, declare, e'er, fair, 
fare, glare, hair, heir, impair, lair, mare, ne'er, pear, prayer, 
rare, repair, scare, scarce, stare, swear, tear (verb) there, where, 
wherefore, wear. 



252 The Elements of Powek. 

6. A as in fate — a, aa, ae, ai, ao, ay, e, ea, ei, ey. 

Formed by carrying the change of the preceding 
a little further — the flattest of all the tonics in a, 
but differing from all the others in that it is clearly 
a diphthong, which terminates with the sound of i 
as in pin. Hence, notwithstanding the near ap- 
proach of the organs to contact, it has a strong vo- 
cality. In words transferred, with little or no 
change, from the Latin and Greek, it is often con- 
founded with a as in arm, contrary to the best Eng- 
lish usage. 

.Aaron, able, aerie, Ate, afflatus, ancient, angel, audacious, 
bane, bathos, bima'nous, Canaanite, chamber, change, chasten, 
com'rade, date, data, datum, dairy, danger, deca'dence, deca'- 
dency, drama, erra'tum, erra'ta, er/ry, feign, freight, gauge, gaol, 
Hades, heinous, halo, inveigh, Janus, Kalif, literati, literatim, 
Magi, manage, matins, matron, message, missionary, nation, 
orange, Parian, patent (adjective) patriot, patriotism, patron, Pa'- 
ternoster, Pa'tripassian, Pharoah, plait, pray, quail, range, rail, 
ratio, sail, saline, secretary, sol'ace, stain, swathe,. tete-a-t£te 
they, va'demecum, verbatim, vaga'ry, vagrant, voracious, voyage, 
yea, weigh, zany. 

§ 152. The tonics in i are as in pine, pin. 

These two sounds may seem to be very different, 
but they stand in the closest relations to each other. 
Hence they are interchanged more frequently per- 
haps than any others. It would take a very long 
list of words to correct only the more common mis- 
pronunciations which arise from this cause. 

1. I as in pine — i, ai, ei, ey, eye, ie, y, uy. 
Properly a diphthong or slide, commencing with 



Pronunciation. 253 

the organs in a very open state, with the roof of the 
mouth raised considerably higher than in the most 
open of the preceding tonics, and with the corners 
of the mouth drawn farther apart. Thus commenced, 
it continues in a slide, the tongue and the roof of 
the mouth constantly approaching each other, until 
it closes with the sound of i as in pin. 

Aisle, ad'vertise, bind, biog'raphy, biol'ogy, brig'antine, buy, 
choir, chirog'raphy, col'umbine, crys'talline, cyn'osure, declina- 
ture, despite', detri'tus, diam'eter, die, di'verse, dio'cesan, echi'- 
nus, edify, ey'as, eyelash, feline, fe'rine, flu'orine, gentile, giiy, 
height, heli'acal, hydrom'eter, hyper' bole, i'odine, iam'bic, gyra- 
tion, kind, lilac, literati, mi'crocosm, mi'croscope, minus, Mithras, 
mus'cadine, nihil, ni'hilism, oblige, oblique, pantomime, pari'etal, 
piratical, prime' val, quiescent, rhinoc'eros, respi'ratory, sacrifice, 
sac'charine, sat'urnine, ser'pentine, sinecure, spikenard, thyme, 
tribu'nal, trilogy, tri'lobite, u'terine, vie, virus, wise'acre, zymol'- 

ogy. 

2. las in pin — i, ai, ei, oi, ui, e, ee, ey, ia, ie, a, ay, 
o, % y. 

Properly a section cut off from the end of the pre- 
ceding tonic, the organs being in precisely the same 
position in forming this, as at the close of that. It 
is one of the feeblest of the tonic sounds, for the 
reason that it is formed with the organs very near 
together. It will be observed that we have here 
no less than fifteen different signs representing the 
same sound ; and besides this, the sound is often 
omitted where the sign remains. Thus the letter i 
is almost always silent when preceded by the sound 
of sh, or z as in azure, and followed by a, e, o ; as in 
anxious, fashion, nation, partial,, patient, precious, 



254 The Elements of Powee. 

vision, pronounced, angshus, fashun, nashun, par- 
slial, pashent, preslius, vizun (z as in azure). 

Adaman'tine, advertisement, agile, aquiline, bargain, been, 
breeches, busy, business, carriage, certain, chime'ra, chimer'ical, 
chrysalis, cowardice, conduit, discipline, diver' tise, duc'at, Eng- 
land, fa'vorite, fidelity, finance', finesse', forcible, foreign, for- 
feit, franchise, galley, genuine, hos'tile, hypochon'driac, irrita- 
bility, irresistible, intes'tine, ju'venile, lettuce, lib'ertine, mari- 
time, mer'cantile, mas'culine, marriage, min'ute, minute', mir'a- 
cle, mirac'ulous, mirror, mountain, myr'iad, mythol'ogy, nec'ta- 
rine, Pal'atine, philanthropy, philol'ogy, philos'ophy, prac'tice, 
pretty, pu'erile, rally, rallied, ra'pine, Sunday, Monday, etc. 
tally, tor'toise, tribune, tyranny, unit, valley, villain, virulent, 
whim, women, xi'phias, zinc. 

§ 153. The tonics in e are as in err, pet, eve. 

These three sounds also are here placed in reg- 
ular series from the greatest to the least openness 
of the organs. They are all, however, of compara- 
tively feeble vocality. 

1. E as in err — e, ea, i, y. 

Formed by raising the tongue a little from its 
position in a as in arm, by slightly contracting 
the mouth cavity, and by throwing the vocal reson- 
ance a little higher up. This sound is very nearly 
the same with that of u in but, with which, therefore, 
it is frequently comfounded. Like the sound of a 
in care, it is almost always followed by r, the pecu- 
liar influence of which seems to determine its char- 
acter. 

Alert, berth, birth, birch, certain, der'nier, dirge, dirk, dirt, 
earl, early, earnest, earth, expert, fern, fertile, first, germ, gird, 
girl, guerdon, her, herb, heard, hearse, immerse, jerk, kernel, 



Pronunciation. 255 

learn, mercer, mercy, mirth, mirky, myrrh, myrtle, nerve, perch, 
person, quirk, re'pertory, serve, servant, serpent, sir, sir' loin, 
squirm, stir, stirrup, syrup, term, terse, therefore, verge, vernal, 
virtue, were, yearn, zerda. 

2. E as in pet — e, ea, ei, eo, ey, a, ai, ay, ie, oe, u. 

Formed by flattening the mouth cavity a very lit- 
tle from its position in the preceding, the tongue 
being a little more raised towards the roof of the 
mouth. The letter e, where otherwise it would rep- 
resent this tonic, is frequently silent. The follow- 
ing are the most important cases, although not 
without exceptions. 

(1.) At the end of syllables and words, as in ace, 
careless, time, sublime, wake. 

(2.) In closing unaccented syllables when fol- 
lowed by 1, n ; as in drivel, even, grovel, harden, 
heaven, mantel, navel, ousel, ravel, seven, shekel, 
shovel, shrivel, snivel, weasel ; pronounced, drivl, 
evn, gravl, hardn, heavn, etc. 

(3.) In ed not preceded by d, t, at the end of 
verbs and participles ; as in feared, praised, tossed, 
pronounced feard, prazd, tost. The.e has its full 
sound, however, in the following participles used as 
adjectives, beloved, blessed, cursed, learned. Thus 
we say, He learnd well, and became a learned 
man. It has its full sound also in adjectives ending 
in ed, as in horned, naked, ragged, striped, winged. 

This tonic is frequently confounded with e in err, 
or u in but. Thus American, error, chicken, chil- 
dren, herald, are mispronounced, Amurica, urror, 
chickun, childrun, hurald. 



256 The Elements of Power. 

Again, against, amenity, ate (did eat) assafcetida, berry, beryl, 
bevel, bwry, careless, carelessness (in less and ness, wherever 
they occur) celibacy, ce'ment, cer'ebral, chimerical, deficit, 
defalcation, deluge, departmental, dep'recate, deprivation, der'e- 
lict, descant, des'tine, des'ultory, des'uetude, det'onate, det'riment, 
devoir', dreamt, edible, endeavor, enemy, error, errand, evolution, 
feof, feofment, felon, fetichism, forget, friend, get, genealogy, herald, 
heroine, heroism, imbe'cile, inherit, instead, jeopard, jeopardy, jeal- 
ousy, let, lev'ee, many, men' ace, measure, nonpareil', parliament, 
peasant, petal, pleasure, poem, prebend, predicate, preface, prelate, 
presage, presentee', prestige, question, qucestor or questor, realm, 
rec'reant, rec'reate, recreation, reg'imen, ren'dezvous, said, saith, 
sterile, ster'eoscope, ster'eotype, tepid, terror, treble, very, weapon, 
yellow, yes, yet, yesterday, zealot, zealous. 

3. E as in eve — e, ee, ea, ey, ae, i, ie, oe, nay-. 

Formed by carrying the change of the mouth or- 
gans, described in the preceding tonic, a little 
further. The position of the organs is almost iden- 
tical with that which they occupy in the formation 
of i as in pin ; hence there is very little difference 
between the two sounds, and they are frequently 
confounded. 

^Ege'an, beard, breach, caprice, chime'ra, courier', deduce', de- 
grade, de'viate, devious, east, eel, ear, educe', e'dile, either, 
fe'line, fe'rine, fetich, fcetus or fetus, fierce, fretum, frequent, 
gleam, grega'rious, hear, heat, heave, heathen, heather, implead, 
jejune', key, leap, leaped, leisure, lenient, lever, let/, lineage, lin- 
eal, memoir, mien, neither, niece, or'deal, Orleans, ossoph'agus, 
petrol, pique, prelect, pre'fix, quay, query, quie'tus, ravine', rear, 
receive, receipt, recluse', research', resource', seine, sheik, shire, 
siege, sleek, treason, veal, weal, yeast, zeal. 

§ 154. The tonics in o are as in not, nor, old. 

In these three tonics, here arranged in series, as 
in the preceding cases, there is a constant approach 



Peonunciation. 257 

to a circular position of the lips, corresponding to 
the form of the letter which represents the sound. 

1. as in not — o, ou, oiv, a, cm. 

Formed by rounding the mouth cavity, and the 
aperture of the lips, a very little from their position 
in a as in arm. There is a large class of words, 
chiefly such as have o followed in the same syllable 
by nasal or atonic sounds, in which it is differently 
pronounced, both by good orthoepists, and good 
speakers. Thus the words gone, lost, shone, soft, 
are pronounced with the o either as in not, or in 
nor. The weight of authority, however, greatly pre- 
ponderates hi favor of the former, which accordingly 
is here followed, although the common practice in 
this country is in favor of the latter. This letter is 
often silent in on without the accent, at the close of 
dissyllables ; as in bacon, cotton, deacon, iron, par- 
don, reason, weapon, pronounced, bacn, cotn, deacn, 
irn, pardn, reasn, weapn. 

Allot, aloft, adopt, atrocity, beaumonde', bonnet, boss, brocade', 
broth, canl'ifiower, cloth, closet, coffee, col'lier, cough, conserve 
(in con always) cost, cross, dem'agogue, dialogue, docile, dog, 
dogma, donkey, doll, domine, Donatist, dross, emboss, floss, fore- 
head, frost, froth, gloss, gone, gong, grovel, hog, loft, Lombard, 
long, loss, lost, mock, Moslem, mosque, moth, off, offer, offspring, 
oft, often, omelet, orange, plot, process, product, progress, protest 
prong, quadruped, quality, quandary, quantity, quarrel, scoff, 
shone, sol' ace, strong, swath, thong, trough, volley, wallet, wand, 
wander, wrong, wroth, yon, yonder. 

2. as in nor — o, eo. 

Formed by rounding the aperture of the lips a 



258 The Elements of Power. 

little from their position in the preceding, and by 
enlarging the back cavity of the mouth, so as to 
throw the vocal resonance a little further down. 
This sound differs hardly in a perceptible manner 
from a in all, with which consequently it is often 
confounded. It is almost always followed in the 
same syllable by r, except when it forms a diphthong 
with i, y. 

Adorn, born, corn, donor, dormant, effort, for, forfeit, George, 
horse, indorse, Jordan, lorn, morn, morning, morsel, mortal, north, 
ordain, portion, remorse, resort, snort, sorcery, torn, worn. 

3. as in old — o, oo, oa, ou, ow. ao, au, eo, eau, ew. 

Formed by rounding the mouth cavity and lips 
into a circle. It is properly, however, a diphthong 
or slide from a as in arm to u as in rule. Followed 
by r in the same syllable, it is often confounded 
with a as in all, or o as in nor, as in glaury for 
glory; and when it is correctly sounded in such 
words, there is a sectional tendency to suppress the 
following r, as in foth, cose, for forth, coarse. 

Adore, alone, atrocious, batteau', bore, bourn, beaufet, bro'cage, 
brooch, coat, coarse, corse, core, court, court'ier, couteau, domes' tic, 
donor, door, dough, floor, forge, force, fort, four, fourth, forth, goat, 
glory, gore, gory, hautboy, hoar, hoard, hoarse, hoary, home, 
implore, jowl, ]ow\er, knoll, loath, loth, loio, melloio, mourn, no'- 
menclatnre, only, opinion; port, porter, portly, portion, portrait, 
portray', pour, pou tice, poultry, Pharaoh, po'tentate, resource', 
revolt, roar, seto, seioer, sheio, strew, shore, sloth, snore, souL 
source, stone, sword, to' wards, trophy, trow, uproar, whole, woad, 
won't (will not), worn, yeoman, zone. 



Pbonunciation. 259 

§ 155. The tonics in u are as in hut, full, rile, use. 

These four tonics are arranged here in series from 
greater to less openness of the lips. They are all 
nearly related to the tonics in o, and consequently 
most of them are represented by o as often perhaps 
as by u. They are distinguished from each other by 
slight shades of difference ; hence are frequently 
confounded ; but the best speakers are careful to 
give to each its precise value. 

1. II as in hut — u, oic, o, oe, eo. 

Formed by relaxing a very little the circular posi- 
tion of the lips, from that which they occupy hi o as 
in old, and allowing them to recede a little further 
from each other. When followed by r in the same 
syllable, this tonic is taken by some orthoepists for 
a different one ; as if u in burn were different from 
u in but. This distinction, however, seems to have 
arisen from ascribing to the tonic something which 
is really due to the influence of the peculiar subtonic 
r. The case is somewhat similar to that of a in care, 
as distinguished from a in fate, and to that of o in 
nor, as distinguished from a in all ; but the differ- 
ence, in this case, does not seem to be sufficient to 
warrant a distinction. This sound is often con- 
founded with o in not. 

Above, atom, bulge, brtrden, burr, column, come, comely, com- 
fit, comfort, companion, conduit, couple, covenant, cover, covet- 
ous, Cromwell, does, done, donjon, dost, doth, double, dove, due' at, 
dungeon, dust, emulge, fulsome, glut, govern, grievous, gum, hic- 
cough, hover, journal, journey, joust, love, money, mongrel, 
mother, motion, nation, none, of, one (pronounced wun), oven, 
plover, ronion, shove, shovel, sloven, smother, some, son, southern, 



260 The Elements of Power. 

sovereign, supple, touch, union, wonder, wont (accustomed) word, 
world, worm, worth. 

2. U as in full — u, o, oo, ou. 

Formed by bringing the lips a little nearer 
together than in the preceding — often confounded 
with it, and with u as in rule. 

Book, bosom, brook, bull, could, crook, good, hood, hook, look, 
mistook, pull, pullet, pulley, push, put, shook, should, stood, took, 
wolf, wolverene', Wolsey, woman, wood, wool, would. 

3. U as in rule — u, ue, ew, o, oo, oe, ou, oeu, too. 
This tonic differs in formation from the preceding 

as that differs from the one that immediately pre- 
cedes it. The signs u, ue, ew, when preceded by r 
in the same syllable, always represent this sound. 
Some orthoepists maintain that it is represented by 
these signs also whenever they are preceded by 1 in 
the same syllable ; but the weight of authority is 
against them, and in favor of u as in use. A middle 
ground appears to be the true one. Accordingly 
when these signs are preceded by 1 combined with 
another consonant in the same syllable, they are 
taken to represent this tonic, as in flute, glue, slew, 
pronounced, floot, gloo, sloo. This is the common 
practice in England and this country, though it is 
different in Scotland and Ireland. The difficulty of 
pronouncing such words with u as in use, is such as 
to make it nearly certain that it will be entirely 
superseded by the pronunciation here given. But 
the difficulty is not so great when these signs are 
preceded by 1 alone ; consequently, in such cases, the 
sound of u as in use has been retained, according to 
the best authorities. 



Pronunciation. 261 

Accou'tre, accrue', amour', behove', blue, bousy, bvew, canoe, elite, 
courier', couteau', creio, cruel, doom, dreio, fleu?, flue, food, gluti- 
nous, groom, hoof, hoop, lose, loose, manoeu'ver, move, noose, ooze, 
plume, prove, prune, root, route, rou'tine, rue, ruby, ruse, shreio, 
soon, soot, stoop, to, too, tour, tourney, tournure', true, two, who, 
whom, whose, wound, you, yours. 

4. U as in use — u, ue, id, eau, eu, eiv, ieu, lew. 

Properly a diphthong commencing with y as in 
yet, and closing with u as in rule. It originated in 
the attempt to form, with English organs, the pecu- 
liar sound of the French u, introduced by the Nor- 
mans ; which itself is formed by placing the tongue 
in the position of i as in pin, and then sounding u 
as in rule. The English substituted y for i — two 
sounds so nearly related that they are constantly 
interchanged — and thus formed u as in use. Hence 
this is a characteristic English sound, unknown in 
any other European language ; and as such it should 
be carefully preserved wherever it properly occurs. 
For there is a strong sectional tendency to drop the 
y from this sound, wherever it is preceded in the 
same syllable by d, 1, n, s, t, th, and thus to con- 
found it with u as in rule. But the force and beauty 
of English speaking are greatly marred and enfeebled, 
when such words as allure, new, induce, enthusiasm, 
assume, tune, are pronounced as if they were spelled, 
alloor, noo, indooce, enthoosiasm, assoom, toon. 

Adieu, assitre, attititde, beauty, collude, constitution, delude, dew, 
due, during, elttde, feitd, feio, grandeur, heto, hue, illude, juice, 
kneio, lucid, lurid, lu'natic, Matthieio, news, opportunity, -pew, pre- 
sume, pur'lieu, purview, pursue', relume', resume', sinew, sue, suit, 
suicide, superb, superficial, stew, student, tube, tui'tion, tulip, 
Tuesday, value, voltigeur'. 



282 The Elements of Power. 

§ 156. The tonics in oi, on, are as in oil, our. 

These are the only diphthongs in the language 
that are represented each by two signs; but they 
are not more truly diphthongal sounds than a in 
fate, i in pine, and o in old. 

1. Oi as in oil — oi, oy. 

This sound is vulgarly confounded with i as pine, 
as in jine for join, spile for spoil ; also with o in nor, 
as in oshcer for oyster. 

Anno?/, assoil, boil, boy, coy, coil, despoil, foil, joist, joy, loyal, 
moil, noise, ointment, point, quoit, royalty, soil, toil, voyage. 

2. Ou as in our — ou, ow. 

Formed by a slide from a in arm to u in hut. In 
some sections of the country this tonic is vulgarly 
mispronounced by placing a, e, before it ; as in 
haouse, keow, for house, cow. 

Account, alloio, bough, boio, coio, doubt, doughty, enow, flour, 
goum, house, knout, loud, mound, now, owl, proud, prow, round, 
rout, shroud, sound, town, wound (did wind). 

§ 157. The subtonics are formed by a more full and varied 
operation of the articulating organs than the tonics. 

In the formation of this class of sounds, the organs 
of articulation are more active, and their work in 
differentiating the volume of sound is much more 
effective, than in the tonics. Hence they have a 
lower degree of vocality — being formed of the vocal- 
ized breath more or less checked, or stopped off, by 
a more decided action of the organs. 



; 



Pronunciation. 263 

§ 158. The subtonic feeble checks, y, w, wh, r, 1, next to the 
tonics, have the strongest yocality. 

The vocality of these sounds is less than that of 
tho tonics, because they are formed by a near 
approach to contact of the articulating organs ; it is 
stronger than in the other subtonics, except the 
anomalous nasals, for the reason that all these 
sounds except 1, are formed without actual contact. 
Hence they are all, except wh, properly semi-vowels, 
and as such are capable of performing all the func- 
tions of full tonics, in the formation of syllables 
(§ 119;- 

1. Y as in yet — y, i, j, u. 

This subtonic sound connects itself immediately 
with the tonic i as in pin, being formed with the 
organs in the same position, except that the middle 
of the tongue is raised a little nearer the roof of the 
mouth. Hence in a strict arrangement, the i as in 
pin would have been the last of the tonics, and this 
would have come immediately after it. The two 
are so nearly related that the letters i, y, represent 
either sound indifferently. 

(1.) It is represented by y followed in the same 
syllable by a tonic, that is, at the beginning of syl- 
lables and words; as in yellow, youth, beyond, 
steelyards. In all other circumstances (except in the 
word, hallelujah ; pronounced, halleluyah), y repre- 
sents i an in pine, or pin ; as in by, my, folly, merry. 
(2.) It is frequently represented by i pre- 
ceded by an accented syllable ending in 1, n, t, and 
followed by a, o ; as in banian, biliary, bilious, mil- 



2G4: The Elements of Power. 






lion, pillion, poniard, scullion ; pronounced, banyan, 
bilyary, bilyus, milyun, pilyun, ponyard, sculyun. 

(3.) It is represented by u preceded by g, and fol- 
lowed by a tonic; as in guard, guardian, guerdon, 
guess, guest, guide, guile, guise, guilt ; pronounced, 
gyard, gyardyan, gyerdon, gyess, gyest, gyide, gyile, 
gyilt. Exceptions to this are Guelf, guiniad, and 
their derivatives ; pronounced, Gwelf , gwiniad. 

(4.) It often enters as a transition sound after g„ 
k (however k may be represented) before a as in 
ask, hat, and before i as m» pine, pin, and before e 
as in err ; as in cat, gat, casket, gasket, girl, gird, 
kind ; pronounced, cyat, gyat, cyasket, gyerl, gyerd, 
kyind. The correct pronunciation of such words 
brings the organs into the position in which y is form- 
ed, although the dictionaries do not always indicate 
it. There is, however, a sectional tendency to intro- 
duce this transition sound before a as in arm, and vul- 
garly before e as in err when preceded by p ; as in 
car, garland, perch, pert ; mispronounced, cyar, gyar- 
land, pyerch, pyert. 

(5.) The manner in which this consonantal sound 
enters into u as in use, pronounced, yoose, deter- 
mines the point that the indefinite article before it 
should stand without the euphonic n. We should 
always say, a useful, not, an useful thing. This latter 
is as incorrect as, an youth, an yellow flower. 

(6.) This sound is often improperly suppressed, as 
in east for yeast ; and often vulgarly inserted where 
it does not belong, as in yearth for earth, yearn for 
earn. 



Pronunciation. 265 

2. W os in way — w, u t o. 

This sound connects itself with u in rule, in a man- 
ner similar to that in which y is connected with i 
in pin. It is formed by the organs in the same 
position in which u is formed, except that the lips 
are drawn a little closer together. 

(1.) It is represented by w in precisely the same 
circumstances in which the preceding sound is rep- 
resented by y ; that is, at the beginning of words 
and syllables, when it is followed immediately by a 
tonic ; as in awake, beware, war, well, worth. In 
all other cases, either it forms a diphthong with 
another tonic, as in cow ; or it becomes the full 
tonic u, and is so represented in modern English 
orthography ; or it is suppressed, i. e. the letter is 
silent. 

(2.) It is represented by u preceded by q, g, 
and sometimes by s, when followed by a tonic in 
the same syllable ; as in assuage, conquest, desue- 
tude, frequent, mansuetude, persuade, quarrel, quiet, 
suavity , suite ; pronounced, asswage', cong'kwest, 
des'wetude, fre kwent, man's we tude, perswade', kwar- 
rel, kwiet, swavity, sweet. It is also represented by 
w in buoy, pronounced, bwoy. Exceptions to this 
rule are found in words transferred from the French, 
as in coquette', conquer, liquor, masquerade', in 
which the u is silent. 

(3.) It is represented by o in the word choir, 
pronounced, kwire ; also o is vulgarly pronounced 
w in some sections of the country in such words as 
gwine for going. 



266 The Elements of Power. 

(4.) As a transition sound, it is, in most cases, 
inserted before oi, in such French words as boudoir, 
devoir, reservoir, soiree, pronounced, boudwor', dev- 
wor', reservwor', sworay'. It is always so inserted 
after o, u, before a, e, i, in different syllables of the 
same word; as in coadjutor, fluent, going, pursuant, 
poem, proem, ruin, pronounced, cowadju'tor, flu'went, 
go' wing, po'wem, pro'wem, pursu'want, ru'win. For 
in all such cases, the articulating organs, in passing 
from o, u, to a, e, i, necessarily come into the position 
in which w is formed : we cannot avoid making this 
sound, except by a pause, or interruption of the 
voice, between the syllables of the word, which 
would essentially mar its unity of sound (§ 148 — 4). 

(5.) It is always heard before o in one, pronounced 
wun ; and hence, as in the case of y in u as in use, 
the indefinite article should always stand before this 
word without the euphonic n. Such an one is as 
incorrect as such an wail, or such an wind. 

(6.) W is always silent at the beginning of words 
and syllables before r, and sometimes before h ; as 
in wrath, writhe, wrong, who, whom, whose, whole ; 
pronounced, rath, rithe, rong, hoo, hoom, hoose, 
hole ; also in the word, answer. 

3. Wh as in tvJien. 

This sound commences with an expulsion of the 
whispering breath, the lips being in the position in 
which w is formed ; the breath is then gradually 
vocalized. The atonic h can hardly be said to form 
any part of it. The difficulty of representing it by 
any of the letters of the English alphabet, has 



Pronunciation. 267 

caused it to be differently noted at different times ; 
formerly by huw, as in huwen for when, afterwards 
by hw, as in hwen, and at present by wh, as in 
when. 

(1.) The w of this sign is silent before o, oo, and 
then the h resumes its atonic character ; as in 
whoop, pronounced, hoop (§ 158 — 2, (6)), except in 
whorl, whortleberry, and their derivatives. 

(2.) This sound is often confounded with w in 
way ; as in when, which, why, mispronounced, wen, 
wich, wy. This is a very damaging fault, as it 
greatly enfeebles English speaking. In the follow- 
ing words, and all their derivatives, the sound of wh 
should be articulated in all its strength. 

Whack, whale, wharf, wh&t, wheat, wheel, wlieedle, wheeze, 
whelk, whelm, whelp, where, wherry, whet, whether, whey, w/tich, 
whi&, whig, while, whim, whip, whirl, whisk, whisker, whisper, 
whist, to/dstle, whit, white, whither, whittle, wHorl, icAortleberry, 
why. 

4. B as in ray. 

Formed with the mouth open, nearly as in a in 
arm, and with the middle of the tongue raised up 
tow-ards the roof, and the tip of the tongue turned 
up so as nearly to touch it at the highest point of 
the arch. Sometimes in the formation of this sound, 
there is a broken or trembling contact between the 
tip of the tongue and the roof of the mouth, which 
produces what is called the " roll " of the r. A 
slight degree of this is thought by many good 
speakers to impart greater force to the words in 
which this sound occurs. 



268 The Elements of Power. 

(1.) It has great strength of vocality, because, 
like y, w, it is formed without contact of the organs ; 
and unlike wh, its vocality is pure, or unmixed with 
the atonic breath. Hence, in Sanskrit, it is regarded 
and treated as a vowel, or full tonic. In 'English 
also it frequently performs all the functions of a full 
tonic in the formation of syllables ; as in the ter- 
minations, ere, chre, in acre, mas'sacre, sep'ulchre, in 
which the final e is silent. Thus also its vocality is 
so strong in such monosyllables as flour, hire, lore, 
more, roar, soar, that careful articulation is required 
to prevent them from running into dissyllables, so 
as to become undistinguishable respectively from 
flower, higher, lower, mower, rower, sower. It is, 
moreover, in consequence of this strength of vocality 
that it commonly produces, as we have seen, a 
marked effect upon the preceding tonic (§§ 151 — 5 ; 
153—1; 154—2; 155—1). 

(2.) It is sometimes articulated in too hard a 
manner, by bringing the root of the tongue too near 
the roof of the mouth, and holding it there too 
firmly; as in darrk, marrk, for dark, mark. 

(3.) It is sometimes vulgarly added to a at 
the end of words, as in idear, Mariar, sawr, for idea, 
Maria, saw. 

(4.) It is often improperly suppressed ; as in hoss, 
or ho'se, for horse, and in cose or co'se, for course ; 
and in the following additional examples. 

Absorb, adorn, car, corn, core, door, drawer, endorse, effort, 
for, forego, force, fourth, guard, hair, jar, learn, mercy, nerve, 
observe, pear, quirk, rare, short, tear, vernal, warm, worm, yearn. 



Pronunciation. 269 

5. L as in lay. 

Formed with the mouth open, about in the posi- 
tion in which e as in err is formed, by placing the 
tip of the tongue in contact with the front roof of 
the mouth, yet so as to allow the sound to escape 
freely on both sides of the point of contact. The 
fact that there is this actual contact, might seem to 
be a good reason for excluding this sound from the 
class of feeble checks, and placing it with the soft 
or hard. But it is retained here for the reason that 
the point of contact is so slight, and allows the 
vocality to escape on each side of it with so much 
fullness, that, in this respect, it is hardly, if at all, 
inferior to r, with which it stands in the very closest 
relations, and like which it is regarded and treated 
in Sanskrit as a vowel. 

(1.) It often forms a perfect syllable by itself, or 
with other sub-tonic or atonic sounds, especially in 
the terminations el, il, le, in which e, i, are silent; 
as in able, addle, bottle, cattle, cradle, devil, diddle, 
dingle, drizzle, evil, fiddle, griddle, grizzle, higgle, 
jumble, kindle, little, middle, muzzle, pickle, puzzle, 
riddle, stickle, wrinkle ; pronounced, abl, bottl, devl, 
evl, etc. 

(2.) It is often suppressed before another conson- 
ant in the same syllable ; as in alms, balm, calf, 
calm, calve, chalk, could, half, halve, palm, psalm, 
should , would ; pronounced, ams, sam, etc. 



§ 159. The sub-tonic soft checks, z in azure, z in zone, th in 
then, j, v, have the next strongest vocality. 



270 The Elements of Power. 

In forming these elements, the org ans require to 
be held firmly in such a degree of contact as allows 
of an indefinite prolongation of the sounds. The 
breath of which they are formed is very partially 
vocalized, which, as it escapes through the organs 
in partial contact, gives them all a certain buzzing 
character. Their vocality is less than that of the 
preceding class, because they are formed by actual 
contact ; and it is greater than that of the following 
hard checks, except the nasals, because the contact 
is soft or partial. 

1. Z as in azure — z, g, s, ss. 

Formed of the partially vocalized breath, by plac- 
ing the flat surface of the tongue in soft contact 
with the roof of the mouth, with the teeth brought 
almost together. The sound thus produced is a 
sort of buzz, precisely identical with that of soft g in 
French, and that of s in measure. 

(1.) It is seldom represented by z, except when z 
is followed by u as in use, or by ie in unaccented 
syllables ; as in azure, razure, seizure, brazier, gla- 
zier, grazier. 

(2.) It is represented by g in many words trans- 
ferred from the French, as menage', mena'gerie, 
giraffe', regime', rouge. 

(3.) It is commonly represented by s after an 
accented tonic, and followed by ia, ie, io, iu, u ; also, 
by ss in the words, scission, obscission, recission. 
The following are examples under this rule. 

Ambrosia, ambrosial, Asia, brasier or brazier, Carte 'sian, clos- 
ure, cohesion, collision, composure, contusion, osier, crosier, 



Pkonunciation. 271 

decision, derision, displeasure, division, ecclesia, ecclesiastic, 
Elisian, Elisium, enclosure, enthusiasm, evasion, exclusion, expo- 
sure, Frisian, grasier, hosier, illusion, incision, incisure, leisure, 
lesion, measure, misprision, persuasion, pleasure, preclusion, 
protrusion, rasure, rosier, treasure, vision, usual. 

2. Z as in zone — z, x, c, s. 

Formed of the partially vocalized breath, by plac- 
ing the end of the tongue in soft contact with the 
upper front gums, the teeth being almost closed. 
This sound, which is a proper buzz, is closely cognate 
with the atonic s, with which therefore it is fre- 
quently confounded. 

(1.) It is always represented by z, x, at the be- 
ginning of words, as in zodiac, zumic, Xenophon, 
xiphoid. It enters also, together with g as in gay, 
into the sound of x in certain other circumstances 
(§ 162 — 1, (2)). Both these sounds of x are heard in 
Xerxes, pronounced, Zergzez. 

(2.) It is represented by c where c stands for s 
and s would represent this sound; as in discern, 
sice, suffice, sacrifice ; pronounced, dizzern, size, suf- 
fize, sacrifize. 

(3.) The cases in which it is represented by s are 
very numerous and complicated, so that they cannot 
be reduce.d under certain rules. The following are 
the most important. 

(a.) In some derivatives to distinguish them from 
their primitives ; as in use, abuse, close, grease, rise, 
(verbs) usage, greasy, gaseous, gooseberry ; pro- 
nounced, uze, abuze, cloze, greaze, rize, uzage, 
greazy, gazeous, goozeberry. 

(b.) In the plural of nouns and third person sin- 



272 The Elements of Power. 

gular of verbs, when preceded by a tonic or sub- 
tonic ; as in arms, bonds, cause, digs, heads, rings, 
churches, boxes, prices, charges, teaches; pro- 
nounced, armz, bondz, cauze, digz, headz, ringz, 
churchez, boxez, pricez, chargez, teachez. 

(c.) Preceded by the inseparable prepositions, ob, 
de, pre, re, and followed by a tonic ; also in usurp, 
and in all its derivatives; likewise in absolve, but 
not in all its derivatives. 

Desert, deserve, desiderate, design, desire, desist, observe, pre- 
sent, preserve, preside, presume, resemble, resent, reserve, reside, 
resign, resile, resist, resolve, resort, resound, result, resume, re- 
surrection. 

(d.) It should be represented by s in the insepa- 
rable preposition, trans, whenever it is followed by 
a tonic. A strong analogy requires this, and it is 
thought to be according to the best usage, although 
the authorities in orthoepy do not warrant the rule 
in a universal form. Following the rule, all such 
words as transaction, transit, transition, transitive, 
should be pronounced, tranzaction, tranzit, tranzi- 
tion, tranzitive. 

(e.) It is represented by s in the inseparable pre- 
position, dis, when followed by an accented tonic or 
sub tonic, except sometimes u, w. Under the ana- 
logy of this rule we have also discern, dissemble, 
dissolve ; pronounced dizzern, etc. In the following 
words, therefore, and in all their derivatives in 
which dis is followed by the accent, s has the sound 
of z in zone. 



Pronunciation. 273 

Disarm, disaster, disband, disbark, disbench, disbind, disbur- 
den, disburse, discern, disdain, disdeify, disease, dissemble, dis- 
gage, disgarland, disgarnish, disgorge, disgrace, disguise, disgust, 
dishonor, dishonest {h silent) disintegrate, disin'terest, disjecta, 
disjection, disjoin, disjoint, disjunct, dislike, dislimn, dislodge, dis- 
loyal, dismantle, dismast, dismay, dismember, dismiss, dis- 
mount, disnaturalize, disorder, disorganize, disown, disrelish, dis- 
robe, disrupt, dissolve, disvalve, disvalue. 

3. Th as in then. 

Formed of the partially vocalized breath, by plac- 
ing the end of the tongue between the front, in soft 
contact with the upper teeth. Neither of the atonies, 
t, h, which in our imperfect symbolization are taken 
to represent this sound, forms any part of it. For 
each of these is formed by an entirely different 
position of the organs, and they are without vocality, 
whilst this is partially a vocal sound. 

It is represented by th in verbs ending in the, and 
in some without the e ; also, in the plural of some 
nouns the singular of which have the sound of th in 
thin, and in other words. It is heard in the fol- 
lowing, and in all their derivatives. 

Batf/te, baths, beneath, beqneaih, blithe, breathe, bur//ien, clothe, 
clothes, hither, farther, further, lathe, laths, lithe, loathe, mother, 
mouth (verb) mouths, oaths, other, paths, rather, smooth, smothei, 
scythe, soothe, swathe, swaths, teethe, than, that, the, thee, their, 
them, then, thence, there, these, they, thine, this thither, those, thou, 
thus, thy, tithe, underneatfi, with, wreathe, writhe. 

4. V as in vile — v,f t ph. 

Formed of the breath as in the preceding, by 
placing the under lips in soft contact with the upper 
front teeth. This sound is represented by f in one 



274 The Elements of Poweb. 

word, the preposition, of ; pronounced, uv ; by ph in a 
few words, such as nephew, Stephen ; pronounced 
nevu, Steven ; and by v wherever it occurs, as in the 
following examples. 

Auail, braue, caue, dove, eve, five, grave, hive, ivy, Jove, knave, 
liue, move, novice, oven, pave, quaver, rave, strive, trav'erse, value, 
velvet, vuluiform, wave. 

5. J as in joy— j, g. 

Formed of the partially vocalized breath, and 
with the organs very nearly in the position of z in 
azure, except that the tongue is brought a little far- 
ther forward, and at first is in harder contact with 
the roof of the mouth, which contact is relaxed in 
forming the sound. The two sounds consequently 
are closely cognate with each other. 

(1.) It is commonly represented by g before e, i, 
y, in words derived from the Latin, and in some 
derived from the French in which g does not repre- 
sent z as in azure. It is also represented by g pre- 
ceded by d in the same syllable, in which case the 
d is silent; as in budge, fudge, pronounced, buj, 
fuj. 

(2.) A slight sound of j enters in transition 
after d at the end of an accented syllable followed 
by u in use, as in the words credulous, educate, 
individual, pendulous ; pronounced, credjulous, edju- 
cate, individjual, pendjulous. It is a common error 
to render this transition sound with too great full- 
ness and strength ; also, to introduce it after d be- 
fore accented syllables, and sometimes even to turn 
d into j in such cases : thus dupe, during, obdu'rate, 
are often mispronounced, jupe, juring, objurate. 






Pronunciation. 275 



(3.) It is represented by j wherever j occurs. 

Agitate, bourgeon, cajole, dudgeon, enjoin, fledge, germ, gyra- 
tion, hedge, injunction, just, kedge, ledge, majesty, nudge, oblige, 
page, rage, sage, trajection, urge, village, wage. 



§ 160. The sub-tonic hard checks, in, n, ng, nk, g-, d, b. are 
all formed of the vocalized breath, with the mouth organs 
in a state of perfect closure. 

These sounds are formed of the vocalized breath, 
with the mouth organs as above, so that the outflow 
of the sound through the mouth is perfectly stopped 
off. A certain resonance of the voice then takes 
place in the nasal cavities, which gives these sounds 
their peculiar character. The proof of this is that 
no sound can escape from the mouth, and that the 
vibrations of the sound in the nasal cavities is quite 
sensible upon close attention. This resonance, how- 
ever, is very different in the case of the nasals from 
what it is in the subnasals (§ 111). 

§ 161. The nasals m, n, ng, nk, all except the last, have a 
very full vocality, and are capable of being- indefinitely 
prolonged. 

In all these sounds, except nk, there is a perfectly 
free escape of the vocalized breath through the nos- 
trils. Hence their vocality is nearly equal to that of 
the tonics themselves, and, with the above excep- 
tion, they are capable of performing all the func- 
tions of tonics in the formation of syllables. This 
capacity is much more fully exhibited in some other 
languages than it is in English. In that large and 



276 The Elements op Power. 






interesting family of African tongues, called the 
Kaffir or Nilotic, which are spoken by almost all 
the African tribes south of the Mountains of the 
Moon, these nasals form syllables by themselves 
quite as frequently as the tonics. Thus in the 
Bake'le and Mpong'we dialects, mpa'ka, mpa'ga, 
gift — nto'thi, nto'no, breast — ngu'ba, ngu'wa, shield. 
This is the case also in some of the islands of 
the Pacific. In English, however, ng never forms 
a syllable by itself ; m sometimes does, as in yes-m, 
the colloquial pronunciation of yes ma'am ; and n 
very frequently, as in even, heaven, seven ; pro- 
nounced, evn, heavn, sevn, (§ 153 — 2, (2.)) The nasals 
are properly humming sounds. There is, however, a 
false or impure sound, which is called " the nasal 
tang," and which is formed by closing or obstruct- 
ing the nostrils in front, so that a peculiar resonance 
takes place immediately behind the obstruction ; but 
this abominable impurity, which sometimes affects 
all the sounds of speech, is no legitimate nasal. 
When, moreover, the cavities of the nostrils are 
closed or obstructed farther back, in consequence of 
which the resonance of the sound is confined to these 
cavities at the point where they open into the mouth, 
the result is that the nasals are reduced to sub- 
nasals ; that is, m, n, ng, are perfectly identified 
respectively with b, d, g. A person with such an 
obstruction, attempting to say, Uncle John made 
me sing, will say, Ugle Jod bade be sig. This ex- 
hibits the close cognate relation between the nasals 
and subnasals respectively, and points out the pre- 
cise difference between the two kinds of sound. 



Pronunciation. 277 

1. M as in may. 

Formed by closing the lips in hard contact, and 
allowing the whole volume of sound to pass through 
the cavities of the nostrils. Hence the strong vocal- 
ity of this sound. 

It is represented by m wherever m occurs, except 
in the words, compt, accompt, accomptant, compta- 
ble, comptroller, comptrollership ; pronounced, count, 
account, accountant, countable, controller, control- 
lership. 

Arm, cram, doom, emmet, fame, groom, hum, impart, jam, limit, 
.Mamma', namby-pamby, ombre, pump, ram, sum, timber, umbrella, 
vim, wampum, yam. 

2. N as in nay. 

Formed by placing the flat surface of the tongue 
at its tip in hard contact with the roof of the mouth 
near the upper front gums, the sound passing freely 
through the nostrils as before. Its vocality is of 
equal strength to that of the preceding. 

(1.) It forms a syllable by itself much more fre- 
quently than m, as in most dissyllables ending in 
en without the accent ; also in many in on — e, o, 
being silent in these cases. Examples of this have 
been given before (§§ 153—2, (2) ; 154—1). In the 
following words, however, it does not form a sylla- 
ble by itself, the e of the last syllable being fully 
sounded; aspen, chicken, flower, Hymen, hyphen, 
kitchen, latten, linen, marten, mitten, mynchen, 
omen, patten, platen, pollen, siren, sloven, sudden, 
ticken, woolen, women. 



278 The Elements of Powee. 

(2.) N is silent when it follows 1, m, in the same 
syllable ; as in condemn, contemn, hymn, hymning, 
kiln, limn, mnemonics ; but not in condemning, con- 
temning, nor in such words as government. 

An, cannot, dun, enunciate, fan, granny, hunter, in, junto, ken, 
lent, man, none, on, pin, rennet, stint, tend, under, vine, wine, yon, 
went, wend. 

3. Ng as in sing — ng, n. 

Formed by placing the back part of the tongue in 
hard contact with the corresponding part of the 
roof of the mouth, the breath as in the preceding. 
The sound of n does not enter into it at all, being 
formed with the organs in a different position. It 
is represented by n as often perhaps as by its own 
proper sign of ng, as in the following cases. 

(1.) Where ng is followed in the same word by 
another syllable beginning with a tonic, the n has 
the sound of ng, and the g retains its own sound ; 
as in the words, England, finger, longer, longest, 
stronger, strongest; pronounced, Inggland, fingger, 
longger, strongger. There are several exceptions 
to this rule, as where the following syllable is any 
of the verbal endings, est, eth, ing, ed, er of the 
notnen agent-is; as in singest, singeth, singing, singer, 
winged ; in all which ng represents its proper sound. 

(2.) Where n is followed by k, or c, ch, q, repre- 
senting the sound of k, n commonly represents the 
sound, ng ; as in ankle, anchor, conquer, uncle ; pro- 
nounced, angkle, angkur, congker, ungkle. The ex- 
ceptions to this rule are the very few words in which 
nk, nc, represent the fourth nasal as given below. 



Pronunciation. 279 

(3.) Where n is followed by x, as in anxious, 
larynx, lynx, sphinx ; pronounced, angshus, laryngx, 
lyngx, sphingx. 

Under these three rules, n represents the sound of 
ng in the following words, and in all their deriva- 
tives. 

Anger, angle, anguish, angular, anxiety, bank, banquet, blank, 
blanket, bri?ik, bungle, ca?icrine, canker, cinque, cla?igor, clank, 
concord, conger, congress, crank, crink, dangle, dank, donkey, 
drink, drunk, elongation, English, fla?ik, frank, function, fungous, 
gangrene, gingle, ha?ik, hanker, hunger, ink, jangle, jungle, junk, 
lank, language, languish, languor, linger, hnk, mangle, mingle, 
mink, minx, monger, mongrel, monk, monkey, pink, precinct, 
pri?ik, quincunx, rancor, rank, rankle, sanction, sanctify, sanctuary, 
sanguine, shingle, single, singular, sink, sphincter, su?ik, spank, 
sprinkle, spunk, tank, thank, think, tinkle, tingle, unguent, 
unction, unctuous, vanquish, wink, wrinkle, Yankee, zink. 

4. Nk as in blink — nk, nc. 

Formed by placing the organs in the same posi- 
tion as in the preceding, and then stopping off the 
sound with the atonic k. There are only a few 
words in the language in which this sound occurs, 
among which are blink, kink, shrink, cunctation, 
cunctator. 



§ 162. The sub-nasals, g, d, b, are incapable of being pro- 
longed. 

The principal difference between the nasals and 
subnasals, with respect to their formation, is that in 
the former, the resonance of the voice takes place 
throughout the whole length of the nasal cavities, 
from which, except in the case of nk, it escapes in a 



280 The Elements of Power. 

sound capable of indefinite prolongation ; whilst in 
the latter, the resonance is restrained to the back 
cavities, and to the mouth where these cavities open 
into it, and where the sound is soon stopped off. 
In the case of the subnasals also there is a peculiar 
pressure of the breath upon the place of contact of 
the organs. The nasals and subnasals are cognate 
with each other, and also with the atonic hard 
checks, k, t, p, as hereafter exhibited. 

1. G as in gay — g, n, x. 

Formed by placing the back part of the tongue 
against the corresponding part of the roof of the 
mouth, and pressing the vocalized breath against 
the place of contact. The sound thus produced 
seems to be stopped off by the closing of the nasal 
cavities, where these enter the mouth, by the pres- 
sure of the soft palate. This sound is cognate with 
ng, and with k ; the organs in all three cases being 
very nearly in the same position. 

(1.) It is represented by g before a, o, u, as in 
gave, gone, gun ; gaol, pronounced, jale, is the only 
exception ; also, in most words of Anglo-Saxon origin 
before e, i, y, as in get, give, boggy. 

(2.) It is represented in x in the inseparable pre- 
position ex, which follows the analogy of dis (§ 159 
— 2, (3), (e)); that is, the x of this preposition repre- 
sents the sound of gz (z as in zone) when followed by 
an accented tonic ; also, in some derivatives from such 
words, where the following tonic is without the ac- 
cent; as in exaltation; pronounced, egzaltation. 
Luxurious, and uxorious, pronounced lugzurious (z as 



Pronunciation. 281 

in azure), ugzorious (z as in zone), follow the analogy 
of this rule. There are a few exceptions to it, mostly 
in words transferred, with little or no change, from 
Greek or Latin; such as exseresis, exangia, ex- 
animo, exan'thema, exan'thesis, exect', exe'dra, ex- 
e'sion ; pronounced, ekse'resis, eksan'gia, eksan'imo, 
etc.; also, a few words in which u is the accented 
tonic, such as exude, exudate ; pronounced, eksude', 
eksu'date. 

(3.) For the sound of g represented in n, see 
§ 161—3. 

(4.) G is silent before n at the beginning and end 
of words ; also before ht, and commonly before h, 
at the end of words ; as in feign, fight, gnaw, high, 
nigh, right, sigh, sign. It is sometimes improperly 
suppressed, as in recognize, mispronounced, reco- 
nize. 

In the following words, and in all their derivatives 
in which x is followed by an accented tonic, it repre- 
sents the sound of gz (z as in zone). 

Exa'cerbate, exa'cinate, exac'ulate, exact', exag'gerate, exag'i- 
tate, exalt', exam' en, examine, exam'ple, exan'gulous, exan'gu- 
ous, exan'imate, exan'imous, exan'them, exant'late, exar'illate, 
exas'perate, exauc'torate, exau'gurate, exau'thorate, exau'thorize, 
exec'utive, exec'utor' exec'utory, exec'utrix, exem'plar, exempt', 
exen'terate, exergue', exert', exes'tuate, exhaust', exher'itation, 
exhib'it, exhil'arate, exhort', exhume' (h silent) exic'cate, exig'u- 
ous, exile' (verb) exist', exi'tial, exolve', exon'erate, exorbitant, 
exor'dial, exor'dium, exos'culate, exot'ie, exult', exul'cerate, exun - 
date. 

2. D as in day. 

Formed by placing the flat surface of the end of 



282 The Elements of Power. 

the tongue in hard contact with the front roof of 
the mouth, and pressing the vocalized breath against 
the point of contact. The resonance of the voice in 
the back cavities of the nostrils, and in the mouth 
where these open into it, is quite sensible while it 
lasts, but is soon stopped off. This sound is cog- 
nate with n, on the one hand, and with t, on the 
other — the organs hardly varying in position at all. 
It is represented by d wherever d occurs, except 
that this letter is silent in Wednesday, and wherever 
it is followed by g in the same syllable, as in abridge, 
edge. 

Addition, bid, creed, deed, edit, ted, grade, head, idiom, jade, 
kid, hid, lid, mad, nod, ode, paid, quid, ruddy, staid, toddle, udder, 
videl'icet, widow, yield, zed. 

3. B as in bay. 

Formed by placing the lips in hard contact with 
each other, and pressing the vocalized breath 
against the place of contact. The resonance is as 
in d. The sound is cognate with m and p. 

B is silent before t, and after m, in the same syl- 
lable ; as in debt, doubt, redoubt, lamb, limb, comb, 
dumb ; pronounced, det, dout, etc.; except in the word, 
succumb and its derivatives. It is silent also in 
some other words which do not strictly fall under 
the rule, as in subtle, pronounced, suttle. 

Abbey, cabbage, dabble, ebbing, fable, gable, habit, inhibit, job, 
liberty, mob, nob, oblige, pebble, quibble, rabble, sable, tub, umbrage, 
web. 



Peonunciation. 283 

§ 163. The atonies, h, th in thin, sh, s, f, k, t, p, are distin- 
guished from their cognate sub-tonics by their want of 
vocality, and by a different action of the breath. 

These sounds are simply articulations, which 
check, or stop off, the whispering breath. For even 
where they are preceded by a full tonic, and seem 
to stop off its vocality, as in the word, hot, it will be 
found, upon close attention, that the vocality is limit- 
ed to the tonic, o, and does not affect the t. They 
are further distinguished from their cognate sub- 
tonics, by a slight variation of the position of the 
organs in some cases, and in all, by a marked differ- 
ence in the action of the breath. If this were not so, 
it would be impossible to distinguish cognates of 
the two classes, when speaking in a whisper ; but 
any one will readily notice the difference between 
the whispering sound of b and p. Upon the same 
principle as that applied to the subtonics, the aton- 
ies also are divided into the three corresponding- 
subdivisions of hard, soft and feeble checks. 

§ 164. The atonic feeble check h as in hay. 

This is the only feeble check of this class. It is 
formed by a simple emission of the whispering 
breath, through the open mouth — the shape of the 
opening corresponding to that of the tonic by which 
h is followed in the syllable. This variation in the 
position of the organs in forming this element, might 
be exhibited throughout the whole range of the 
tonics ; as in harsh, high, here, hot, huge, hoist, 
house. * 



284 The Elements of Poweb. 

H is frequently silent, as in the following cases. 

1. Often at the beginning of words, as in the fol- 
lowing, and all their derivatives — heir, herb, honest, 
honor, hostler, hospital, humble, humor. 

2. After another consonant in the same syllable, 
and before another consonant, or alone, at the end 
of a syllable ; as in ghost, aghast, light, bright, ah ! 

3. Before th, as in aphthong, diphthong, triph- 
thong, diphtheria, naphtha, ophthalmia, pronounced, 
apthong, dipthong, naptha, opthalmia. 

4 At the beginning of syllables preceded by dis, 
ex, when pronounced, diz, egz ; as in dishonest, dis- 
honor, exhale, exhalation, exhibit, exhort ; pro- 
nounced, dizon'est, dizon'or, egzale, egzort. 

What is called the cockney dialect in England, is 
characterized chiefly by sounding the silent h, by 
suppressing h where it has its proper sound, and by 
introducing it where the letter does not occur ; also, 
by a similar perversion of the euphonic n of the 
indefinite article. It is a very curious phenomenon, 
and well worthy of minute investigation. 

H is silent in the following additional examples. 

Anthony, burgh, cirrhous, delight, EstAer, freight, ghastly, gher- 
kin, height, isthmus, John, knight, light, myrrh, night, nigh, pal- 
lah, right, sep'ulchre, sirrah, Thames, Thomas, thyme, wright. 

§ 165. The atonic soft checks, th as in thin, sh, s, f, are 
formed of the whispering breath by soft contact of the 
organs. 

The principal difference between these sounds 
and their corresponding subtonic soft checks, th as 
in then, z as in azure, z as in zone, and v, is in 



Pkonunciation. 235 

their want of vocality. The contact and position of 
the organs is almost the same. 

1. Th as in thin. 

Cognate of the subtonic th in then, and formed 
by the organs in the same position, except that the 
tongue is raised a little higher within the mouth, 
and the end of it placed a little further between the 
teeth. The sounds represented by t, h, do not 
enter into it. No certain rule can be given to de- 
termine when th represents this sound, and when 
th as in then; although many nouns have this in 
the singular, and th as in then, in the plural ; and 
some verbs have the latter, to distinguish them 
from the nouns with the former, from which they 
are derived. Thus the first two of the following 
words have the atonic, and the last two the subton- 
ic : lath, mouth, laths, to mouth. This sound is 
heard in the following examples. 

Mhlet'ie, bath, birth, both, breath, cathohc, death, doth, ethical', 
ethnology, iorth, filth, Goth, hath, heath, inthraH, jacinth, kith, 
lath, lithot' omy, method, mirth, myth, noting, orniMol'ogy, path, 
pa^ol'ogy, plin£/;., quoth, rath, something, third, thorn, thrash, 
/brush, truths, wrath, youths. 

2. >S7i as in shun — sh, sc, s, ss, c, ch, t, x. 
Cognate of z in azure — organs the same — breath 

atonic. Neither s nor h forms any part of this 
sound. For in the formation of h, the organs are 
perfectly open, whilst in sh, they are in contact ; and 
in s, the contact is considerably further forwards in 
the mouth than in this sound. Its symbolization 
is peculiarly complicated and difficult. It is repre- 
sented as follows. 



286 The Elements of Power. 

(1.) By sh wherever both these letters occur to- 
gether in the same syllable. 

(2.) By c, sc, preceded by an accented tonic, and 
followed by ea, eo, ia, ie, io, as in ocean, cetaceous, 
facial, nescient, precious ; pronounced, o'shan, ceta'- 
shus, fa'sheal, nesh'eent, presh'us. 

(3.) By ch in all words transferred from the 
French with little or no change of spelling, as in 
chagrin, chaise, chateau; pronounced, shagreen'? 
shaze, shato' ; except in the word chivalry and its 
derivatives, pronounced, tshivalry ; also, by ch pre- 
ceded by n, t, in the same syllable, as in batch, catch, 
cranch, ditch ; pronounced, batsh, catsh, cransh, 
ditsh ; and it enters, together with t, into the sound 
of ch in all other circumstances, except where ch 
represents k (§ 166 — 1, (3)), as in child, much, such, 
pronounced, tshild, mutsh, sutsh. 

(4.) By s, ss, preceded by an accented tonic and 
followed by ea, eo, ia, io, iu, u (except where s has 
the sound of z in azure) as in nauseate, nauseous, 
cassia, passion, Cassius ; pronounced, nausheate, 
nausheus, cashea, pashun, Oasheus ; and in a few 
words which do not fall under this rule, as in sure, 
sugar, sumach ; pronounced, shure, shugar, shumak 
Following the analogy of these few exceptions, in- 
stead of the rule, many speakers erroneously give to 
s the sound of sh in such words as assume, superb, 
superstitious, etc. mispronounced, ashume, shuperb, 
shuperstitious, etc. 

(5.) By t preceded by a syllable with either the pri- 
mary or secondary accent (except when such sylla- 
ble ends in s) and followed by ia, ie, io, as in expa- 



Pronunciation. 287 

tiate, sentient, vitious, pronounced, expasheate, 
sensheent, vishus. 

(6.) By x preceded by n at the end of an accented 
syllable, and followed by io, as in anxious, pro- 
nounced angshus ; also it enters, together with k, 
into the sound of x at the end of such a syllable, 
and followed by io, u, as in noxious, fixure, pro- 
nounced, nokshus, fikshure. 

(7.) It enters as a transition sound after t preced- 
ed by the accent and followed by u, either with or 
without silent letters ; also, when the preceding ac- 
cented syllable ends in s, and t is followed by ia, io ; 
and before the termination, ure, in all cases in which 
it is preceded by t ; as in righteous, christian, bas- 
tion, fixture, creature, garniture, legislature, nature, 
nurture, mixtion, mixture, virtue ; pronounced, right- 
shus, christshan, bastshun, fixtshure, creatshure, 
gar'nitshure, legislatshure, natshure, nurtshure, 
mikstshum, mikstshure, virtshue. This transition 
sound in all such cases should be very slight. It is 
a common error to render it with too great fullness ; 
as, also, to insert it after t in other connections not 
covered by the rule, as in beauteous, calamitous, 
covetous, duteous, opportunity, perpetuity, Tuesday, 
tune, etc. mispronounced, beautsheous, calamitshus, 
covetshus, dutsheous, opportshunity, perpetshuity, 
Tsheusday, tshune, etc. 

It is also a common error to give sh the sound of 
s in such words as shrewd, shrink, shrine, shroud, 
mispronounced, srewd, srink srine, sroud. 

Under the preceding rules, the italicized letters in 
the following words have the sound of sh. 



I in 



288 The Elements of Power. 

Action, branch, c/iam'ois, champagne', champaign', chevalier', 
chemise', crucial, diversion, enunciation, expulsion, expatiation, 
faction, fissure, gracious, Hessian, issue, jaculation, kitchen, Leti- 
tia, luscious, militia, negotiate, nescience, osseous, partial, patient, 
prescience, prescient, pronunciation, propitiation, quassia, rapa- 
cious, ratiocination, satiate, sensual, scissure, social, tenacious, 
tensure, tissue, tonsure, voracious, w&tch. 

3. 8 as in see — s, c, x. 

Cognate with z in zone, the organs being the 
same, except perhaps that in this sound a little less 
of the surface of the tongue is brought into contact 
with the roof of the mouth. This is a sharp hiss- 
ing sound, of which also the representation is com- 
plicated and difficult. 

(1.) It is represented by c before e, i, y, as in cer- 
tain, acidity, cycle, pronounced, sertin, asidity, sycle ; 
except in a few words, such as discern, suffice, sacri- 
fice, for which see § 159 — 2, (2). 

(2.) It enters, together with k, into the sound of x 
at the end of monosyllables, and in the derivatives 
from such monosyllables ; as in fix, fixation, lax, lax- 
ative, laxation, mix, mixture, wax, waxwork, etc. 
pronounced, fiks, fiksation, etc. also, in all cases in 
which x has not the sound sh (§ 165 — 2, (6)), or of 
gz (§ 162—1, (2)), or of z in zone (§ 159—2, (1)). 

(3.) It is represented by s in the following cases, 
and in others not reducible to rule. 

(a.) At the beginning of words, as in safe, see, son ; 
except in a few words in which s represents sh 
(§ 165-2, (4)). 

(b.) At the end of words terminating in as, is, us, 
ss, as in bis, cullis, gas, fas, genius, Marcus, dress ? 
careless, carelessness, fairness; except the plural 



Peonunciation. 289 

of words ending in ea, as in seas, pease ; pronounced, 
seaz, peaz ; and except the words, as, has, his, was, 
together with all their derivatives, such as whereas, 
hisown ; pronounced, az, haz, hiz, waz, whereaz, hiz- 
own. 

(c.) In some nouns ending in se, to distinguish 
them from the verbs or adjectives with which they 
are ety.mologically connected (§ 159 — 2, (3), (a)) as in 
grease, mouse, rise, use ; pronounced, greace, mouce, 
rice, uce. 

(d.) S represents this sound whenever it is pre- 
ceded or followed by an atonic, as in acrostic, ask, bits, 
caps, clasp, dust, fast, locks, muffs, sister, whisper. 

(e.) In the inseparable preposition dis, followed 
by an atonic or unaccented tonic or subtonic, as in 
disavow, discuss, discredit, discretion, disfavor, dislo- 
cate, dishearten, disperse, displace, dissuade, dis- 
sever, disthrone ; except in some words in which s 
has the sound of z in zone, following the analogy of 
§ 159-2, (3), (<?), 

(/.) In the inseparable preposition, trans, this 
sound should be represented by s whenever it is fol- 
lowed by a subtonic or atonic, as in transfix, trans- 
mute, transplant, but the authorities do not warrant 
this limitation— see § 159—2, (3), id). 

S at the end of words transferred from the 
French, is commonly silent, as in debris, pronounced, 
debree' ; also in some other cases, as in isle, island, 
pronounced, ile, iland. It is sometimes mispro- 
nounced by being unduly prolonged, and sometimes 
bj giving it the sound of sh. 



290 The Elements of Power. 

According to the above rules it is heard in the 
following words. 

Ace, brace, cynic, censure, dice, docility, efface, facility, fracas, 
fuss, grass, haste, hostage, ice, industry, justice, kiss, lost, laps, 
lots, maps, mast, must, nips, obstacle, postulate, guest, rats, ser- 
vile, sorrow, subtle, task, taste, use, vice, whist, yesterday, zest. 

4. F as infee—f, gh, ph. 

Cognate of v — lips in the same position. This 
sound is represented by f, ph, wherever these signs 
occur, except in a few words in which ph has the 
sound of v (§ 159 — 4), and by gh at the end of some 
words, and in their derivatives. 

A/raid, ba/fie, cra/t, cough, chough, draught, enough, fi/th, gra/t, 
ha/t, if, lough, laughter, muf, off, phantasy, PMlip, philanthropy, 
pMlosophy, pMegmatic, p/irensy, raffle, rough, rougher, soft, sta^f, 
thereo/, tough, tougher, toughest, trough, wa/t. 



§ 166. The atonic hard checks, k, t, p, stop off the whisper- 
ing *breath by hard contact of tire organs. 

These sounds are the cognates of the subnasals, 
g, d, b, and of the nasals, ng, n, m ; the position of 
the organs being nearly or quite identical. These 
articulations stop off perfectly the whispering breath. 

1. K as in hey — Jc, c, ch, ch, g, gh. 

This sound is the cognate both of g and ng ; it is 
distinguished from them by its want of vocality, 
and further from ng by a harder contact. The dif- 
ference in the action of the breath, here, and in the 
following cases, is also to be observed. 

(1.) This sound is represented by k, ck, q, wher- 



Pronunciation. 291 

ever these signs occur, as in beck, like, quill ; pro- 
nounced, bek, like, kwill. 

(2.) By c .before a, o, u, 1, r, and at the end of syl- 
lables, as in car, come, cut, climb, cram, public, 
lacteal, pronounced kar, kome, kut, klimb, kram, 
publik, lakteal. 

(3.) By ch before 1, r, as in chloroform, christian, 
pronounced kloroform, kristshan ; also, in words de- 
rived from Latin and Greek, except in chalice, char- 
ity, charter. The prefix, arch, is governed in its pro- 
nunciation by the character of the word to which it 
is prefixed ; i. e. ch in arch has the sound of k in all 
words derived from the Greek, except in archdeacon, 
pronounced, artshdeacon, and in a few other cases ; 
whilst in all purely English words, it has the sound 
of tsh, as in archbishop, pronounced artshbishop. 

(4.) By gh in the words, hough, lough, shough, and 
their derivatives ; pronounced, hok, lok, shok, etc. 

(5.) K enters into the sound of x, together with s, 
as in § 165—3, (2). 

Archangel, arcMpelago, archiepiscopal, archidiaconal, arc/lives, 
architect, architype, architrave, bacfc, bequeathe, bequest, chlorosis, 
crime, dyfce, eccentricity, ficfcle, lafce, magna-charta, mafce, necfc, 
oafc, occiput, pic/cle, pofce, quafce, quicfc, racfcet, ricochet, smofce, 
ticfcet, vaccinate, wafce, wicfcet. 

2. T as in tell — t, d, gM, ch. 

Cognate with n and d — organs in the same posi- 
tion — a mere articulation stopping of the atonic 
breath. 

(1.) This sound is represented by t wherever t 
occurs, except where it has the sound of sh (§ 165 



292 The Elements oe Power. 

— 2, (5)), and where it forms a part of th as in then or 
thin, and where it is silent. 

(2.) It is represented by its sub tonic cognate d in 
all words ending in ed in which e is silent and pre- 
ceded by an atonic sound ; as in asked, basked, 
frothed, placed, scraped, tossed, whiffed, whipped, 
pronounced, askt, baskt, plast, scrapt, tost, whift, 
whipt. 

(3.) By ght wherever this sign occurs in the end 
of a word, as in bright, light, might, plight, sight, 
pronounced, brite, lite, mite, plite, site. 

(4.) It enters, together with sh, into the sound of 
ch in all words of pure English origin ; also in arch 
prefixed to such words (§ 166 — 1, (3)); as in archfiend, 
archrebel, birch, broach, church, larch, lurch, march, 
micher, niche, rich, which, etc. pronounced, artsh- 
fiend, birtsh, tshursh, whitsh, etc. 

(5.) T is commonly silent when preceded by f, s, 
and followed by en, le, as in the following examples 
and all their derivatives. 

Aposfle, brisfle, bustle, casfle, chasten, christen, episile, fasten, 
glisten, gristle, hasten, husfte, josile, jusfle, listen, moisten, nesde, 
often, pesfle, rustle, soften, thistle, throstle, whisfle, wrestte. 

3. P as in pay — -p, gh. 

Cognate with m, b — all formed with the lips 
closed. It is seldom represented by any other sign 
than p. In the word hiccough, pronounced, hikkup, 
it is represented by gh. It is sometimes confound- 
ed with its subtonic cognate b, as in baptize, and its 
derivatives, mispronounced, babtise. P is silent 
before s, t, at the beginning of words, as in psalmj 



Pkonunciation. 293 

psalter, Ptolemy, also in receipt, raspberry ; pro- 
nounced, sam, Salter, Tolemy, reseet, razberry. Ex- 
amples of its correct sound are given in the follow- 
ing words. 

Apple, bepaint, captain, deep, employ, flap, grapple, hope, 
irruption, jupe, keep, lip, map, nap, open, pale, quip, rip, sap, top, 
up, wipe, yelp. 



CHAPTER YL 

The Qualities of the Voice. 

§ 167. Elocution aims, not to obliterate the personal charac- 
teristics of voice, but to correct the bad, and to develop 
the good qualities. 

1. Every voice has its own characteristic quality. 
This differential character of every voice has no 

reference to anything which makes one voice better 
than another. It is a quality like those which dis- 
tinguish the sounds of different musical instruments 
from each other. When e. g. the same note is 
sounded upon the flute, violin, and piano-forte, each 
of the three sounds has its characteristic quality, 
though all of them may be equally good. In the 
same way, each person's voice has its characteristic 
quality, or general character, without reference to 
anything which makes it either good or bad ; 
whence it is as easy to distinguish different persons 
by their voices, as it is by their features or counten- 
ances. 

2. Elocution does not aim to obliterate these differ- 
ences. 

It is no part of the aim of this art to tone down 
these characteristics to a common sameness. For 



The Qualities of the "Voice. 295 

they are founded in nature, as truly as the differ- 
ences of countenance and expression of the features ; 
and in vocal music, and conversation between sev- 
eral persons, they give a fullness and variety, which 
is as much an element of beauty and power, as 
variety of instruments in an orchestra. In oratory 
it is essential to the greatest power that the speak- 
er's voice should be distinctively characteristic of 
his own personality, and incapable of being con- 
founded with the voice of any other person. 

3. Elocution aims to correct the bad, and to develop 
the good qualities of voice. 

In another sense of the word quality, it denotes 
the good or bad traits which appear in the same, or 
in different voices; such as purity and impurity, 
smoothness and roughness, roundness and flatnes-s. 
And here, Elocution proposes to teach the methods 
of training and exercise by which the bad qualities 
may be exterminated or reduced, and the good 
developod and perfected. 

§ 168. A good yoice with respect to quality, is {one whose 
tones are pure, full, round, solid, smooth, clear, liquid, 
sweet, musical. 

The qualities of the voice, which, it will be ob- 
served, have no reference either to pitch or force, 
are too numerous, and complicated with each other, 
to be analyzed. In fact, both the good and bad 
qualities necessarily overlap, and, to a certain extent, 
imply each other. Their names are highly meta- 
phorical ; and frequently the principal differences 



296 The Elements op Power. 

between them, is that they are various aspects of 
the same quality, expressed in different metaphors. 

1. Purity of tone is tone unmixed with noise, and is 
the most important of all tlie good qualities. 

There are properly but two kinds or species of 
sound i. e. tones and noises. Tones are produced by 
regular, periodical, isochronous vibrations in the 
sounding body ; they are such sounds as we hear 
from tuning forks, violin strings, and organ pipes. 
Noises are produced by irregular impulses or con- 
cussions, such as the slamming of a door, or the fall 
of a body upon the earth. Of all the good qualities 
purity of tone in the human voice is every way the 
most important, and may be taken as inclusive of 
all the others. 

2. It is produced by regular and unobstructed vibra- 
tions of the vocal chords, in the resonant cavities. 

A sound thus produced is unmixed with noise, 
smooth, clear, liquid, sweet, musical. Fullness, 
roundness and solidity of voice are qualities nearly 
alhed to purity, and partly included in it. They 
cannot be better described than they are by these 
names. They are all exemplified in the tones of a 
superior church organ, which seem to come from 
each separate stop and pipe in a full, round and 
solid form. Hence we speak of the organ tones of 
a fine voice. 



§ 169. The physiological causes of the good qualities are free 
vibration of the vocal chords, healthy condition of the 



The Qualities of the Yoice. 297 

resonant cavities, and facile control of the breathing and 
articulating organs. 

The physiological causes or conditions of the 
good qualities of the voice, are exceedingly numer- 
ous and complicated ; only the most important and 
obvious are here enumerated. 

1. The free vibration of tJw vocal chords. 

That those chords should vibrate freely and per- 
fectly, is the most indispensable condition, inasmuch 
as it is by these vibrations that the breath is con- 
verted into tone (§103 — 2). In order that all the 
breath that is expelled from the lungs, should thus 
be converted into pure tone, and none of it be 
allowed to escape in an unvocalized or whispering 
form, it is indispensable that these organs should 
be kept in a healthy condition, well moistened, but 
not obstructed or clogged by unhealthy or excessive 
secretions. 

2. Adequate capacity and healthy condition of the 
resonant cavities. 

The good qualities of the voice depend also 
upon the size, function and healthy condition of 
the resonant cavities of the windpipe and mouth. 
It is necessary that these should be of adequate 
size or capacity, and that they should present a 
clean, firm and elastic resonant surface. They 
must not be too dry, nor yet obstructed by secre- 
tions ; and the throat and mouth must not be too 
full of the organs which they contain, viz. palate, 
tonsils, tongue, gums and teeth. The bronchial 



298 The Elements of Powee. 

tubes and trachea must be large enough to allow a 
full-sized column of air to pass freely through them. 

3. Facile control of the organs of speech. 

This is especially important with respect to the 
diaphragm, and whole breathing apparatus, in order 
that the breath may be expelled regularly, and in 
such quantities that it can all be converted into 
pure tone, and that the sound thus produced may 
be full, round and solid. Such control over the arti- 
culating organs is indispensable, also, in order that 
they should perform their functions smoothly and 
without noise. 

§170. The bad qualities of the voice are impurity, rough- 
ness, hoarseness, harshness, wheezing, flatness, hollow- 
ness, shrillness and the nasal tang. 

The bad qualities of the voice are also extremely 
numerous, and complicated with each other. They 
are in general the opposite of the good qualities, 
and consequently most of them may be regarded 
as included in impurity. Roughness, hoarseness, 
harshness, wheezing, and the nasal tang, are obvious- 
ly different forms of impurity. Flatness of voice is 
opposed to roundness and fullness ; and hollowness 
to solidity. Both of these are exemplified in the 
tones of a poor church organ, from which the 
sound seems to come, as it were, flat, hollow, unsub- 
stantial. Shrillness is a certain sharpness or acute - 
ness of sound, which seems to pierce the ear like a 
sharp instrument. There is also a trembling of the 
voice, which, when habitual, should be classed with 



The Qualities of the Voice. 299 

the bad qualities. As in the case of the good quali- 
ties, many of these names are little more than vari- 
ous metaphors presenting different aspects of im- 
purity. 

§171. The physiological causes of the bad qualities are in 
general the opposite of those upon which the good quali- 
ties depend. 

1. Impurity is due to the causes by which noises are 
mixed iviih the toiie of the voice. 

These causes are very numerous. When the 
vocal chords do not vibrate freely, but are obstruct- 
ed by excessive or unhealthy secretions, or by any 
other cause, or when the uncontrolled action of the 
diaphragm and breathing muscles forces too much 
breath o^er these chords, a greater or less portion of 
it escapes in an unvocalized, or whispering, or 
wheezing form. When the chords are inflamed and 
swollen from the affection of colds, or sore throat, 
hoarseness is the result ; and, in extreme cases, as 
we have seen, aphonia, or voicelessness. In all cases 
of hoarseness and wheezing, there is more or less 
of unvocalized breath mingled with the tone of the 
voice. When the resonant cavities and breathing 
tubes are obstructed, the voice becomes impure 
from imperfect resonance, and from rattling noises 
of various kinds therein produced ; when the or- 
gans of articulation are too large, or under imper- 
fect control, so that they perform their functions 
clumsily, the tone of the voice is confused and 
blurred by the noise which they make at their work. 



300 The Elements of Power. 

When control over these organs is lost from their 
being overtaxed or strained, the noise which they 
make, combined with other impurities, is sometimes 
like that of the bellows, keys, and other machinery 
of a very poor organ, which nearly drowns its feeble 
tones. In shouting, screaming, and passionate 
vociferation, it is almost impossible to prevent a 
large quantity of breath from escaping in an unvo- 
calized state, and the organs are most liable then to 
make a noise at their work ; so that, in these cases, 
the voice is commonly loaded with impurities. 

2. Flatness is due to the want of a sufficiently elastic 
resonance in the vocal cavities. 

This want of a sufficiently elastic resonance itself 
arises from a variety of causes, such as excess, 
fatigue, exhaustion, whether physical or mental. 
The want of elasticity and spring in the physical 
organism, or mental faculties, in consequence of ill 
health, overtaxing the powers, or any other cause, 
seems to reflect and express itself in a flat, or dull, 
or dead sound of the voice. 

3. Hollowness is due to the feebleness of the breathing 
organs, and to defects in tlie resonant- cavities. 

In such cases, the breathing apparatus fails to 
expel a sufficient volume of air to be vocalized by 
the chordal vibrations into solid sound. Inade- 
quate size, and imperfect construction of the reson- 
ant cavities, also, impart this bad quality to the 
sound of the voice. It is due, further, to the imper- 
fect action and co-operation of the other voca] 
organs. 



The Qualities op the Voice. 301 

4. Shrillness is caused by too high pitch. 

When the voice is exerted on too high a pitch, its 
capacity in this respect is strained, and it becomes 
shrill. In this case, the resonance is thrown almost 
wholly into the arch of the roof of the month. 

5. TJie trembling quality is due to a want of control 
over the breathing organs. 

In this quality, the organs fail to expel the breath 
in that steady stream which gives steadiness to the 
sound of the voice. The quality may also be volun- 
tarily produced, for purposes of expression, by 
alternately checking and expelling the breath. 

6. The nasal tang is produced by obstruction of the 
front nasal cavities. 

Any cause which obstructs in front the free pass- 
age of the breath through the nostrils, will render 
the voice nasal. When this takes place, there is a 
peculiar resonance of the sound apparently about 
the middle of these cavities, and the speaker is 
said to " talk through his nose." It would be more 
correct, however, to say, he talks in his nose. Very 
frequently this results from mere carelessness or 
slovenliness in speaking, when there is no organic 
obstruction; but the habit once formed, is very 
difficult to correct. 

The above are the principal good and bad quali- 
ties of the voice, together with the most important 
physiological conditions or causes upon which they 
depend. The knowledge of them all in detail is not 
essential, but some such exhibition of them as has 



302 The Elements op Power. 

now been made, can hardly fail to aid in under- 
standing the use and importance of the good quali- 
ties, as an element of power in delivery, and in the 
training and practice which they require. 



§172. The good qualities of the voice are the most easy, 
audible and agreeable, and some of the most important 
elements of expression. 

It is chiefly the good qualities of the voice with 
which we have to do, as an element of power in 
delivery. Their importance for this purpose, as ex- 
hibited in the following particulars, can hardly be 
overestimated. 

1. T'hey render speaking comparatively easy to the 
speaker. 

One reason of this is that pure tone is formed 
with the least possible expenditure of breath and 
vital force ; all the breath expended is utilized ; 
whilst, on the other hand, impure tone commonly 
implies the escape of a greater or less proportion of 
the breath in an unvocaiized form, consequently a 
waste of the vital forces. It is truly surprising how 
little breath is required for speaking when it is all 
utilized, and the tones consequently are perfectly 
pure. This may be shown by holding a candle 
close to the mouth while speaking ; when, if the 
tones are free from all impurity, the breath will 
hardly stir the flame ; but if they are impure from 
unvocaiized breath, the flame will flicker, as from a 
draught of air through a broken window. One can 






The Qualities of the Voice. 303 

speak, therefore, in pure tones with comparatively 
little effort or fatigue ; whilst impure tones are very 
exhausting. Hence the bad qualities tend also to 
generate disease in the vocal organs. 

2. They render hearing easy to the audience — they 
are the most audible. 

One reason of this is that pure tone is musical 
sound ; and it is well known that music, under any- 
thing like favorable circumstances, can be heard at 
a vast distance ; whilst mere noise, though of much 
greater force, or loudness, will travel but a very lit- 
tle way. Hence, in the degree in which the tones of 
the voice are rendered impure by admixture of noise, 
is its audibility impaired ; Avhilst the good qualities 
enable the speaker to make himself heard much 
more effectively, and by a much larger audience, 
than were otherwise possible. Even in the open 
air, a pure, full, round and solid voice, though of 
inferior strength, can be heard by an amazing num- 
ber of persons. 

3. They are the sounds ivhich are most agreeable to 
hear. 

A voice of good qualities is sweet and musical ; 
and such qualities excite only pleasurable sensa- 
tions in the audience. Hence they engage their 
attention and sympathy, and commend the senti- 
ments thus delivered to then favorable considera- 
tion, by the pleasure experienced in listening to the 
sounds. On the other hand, impure tones, and the 
other bad qualities, produce only disagreeable sen- 
sations. Rough, harsh, shrill, or nasal sounds irri- 



304 The Elements of Power. 

tate the audience ; and, by placing their minds in 
an attitude of opposition, predispose them to reject 
all that is said. 

4. They are some of tlue most important elements of 
expression. 

The good qualities of the voice are the natural 
symbols, and oral body, or expression of all that is 
true and beautiful and - good in thought and feeling. 
They are required for the expression of all thoughts, 
whether grave or gay, elevated or common-place, — 
and no less of all affections and emotions — that are 
true or right, pure or lovely, serene, gentle, tender, 
affectionate, faithful, truthful, hopeful, earnest, or 
in any way praiseworthy or helpful to man. In fact, 
almost everything that a speaker can legitimately 
seek to communicate to others, or to excite in them, 
requires purity of tone, and the other good qualities 
of the voice. Nothing of this nature can be ade- 
quately expressed in any other qualities. Pity or 
love e. g. expressed in impure, rough, harsh, or hiss- 
ing sounds, is not expressed at all ; elevated or sub- 
lime sentiments, expressed in a thin, hollow, cracked, 
or wheezy voice, are simply caricatured, and re- 
duced from the sublime to the ridiculous ; senti- 
ments of self-sacrifice or devotion, expressed in a 
nasal tang, suggest insincerity and hypocrisy. It 
is impossible to conceive of our Saviour as speak- 
ing with any other than the good qualities of voice. 






The Qualities of the Voice. 305 

§ 173. The bad qualities of the voice are an element of power 
in expressing the bad passions. 

For the elocution of the stage, and perhaps for 
some other purposes, it may be desirable to have 
under control the bad qualities of the voice. For 
they are the natural symbols, and oral body, for 
the expression of all the vile and hateful states of 
mind. Impure tone is the natural and appropriate 
expression of anger, wrath, malice, envy, jealousy — 
of all evil passions and inordinate affections. For 
the effective rendering of such evil passions upon 
the stage, and sometimes in forensic and delibera- 
tive oratory, it may be well to have at command the 
different varieties of impure tone ; but the art of 
Elocution, as here taught, can have little to do with 
the training of the voice for such expression. 

§ 174. T3ie training required for the development of the good 
qualities of the voice, consists in exercising it daily in 
these qualities. 

The particular rules for these exercises, having 
for their object the correction of the bad, and the 
development of the good qualities of the voice, are 
few and simple, but of great efficacy where they are 
faithfully applied. 

1. The services of a good teacher should be secured. 

This rule applies to all the exercises which elocu- 
tion prescribes. Wherever it is possible, the stu- 
dent should have the advice and direction of a good 
teacher, especially for the purpose of pointing out 



306 The Elements of Powek. 

faults and defects, and to exemplify all the good 
and bad qualities of voice. For we become so ac- 
customed to our own peculiarities, whether of voice, 
or in other respects, that we are, for the most part, 
insensible of them ourselves, however prominent 
and striking they may be to others ; and it is ex- 
tremely difficult for us to become conscious of them, 
until they are pointed out and exemplified to us by 
some other person. Where a teacher cannot be 
had, a judicious friend should be consulted for this 
purpose. 

2. The ear must be cultivated to distinguish the 
qualities. 

If the ear of the student be naturally dull, it is 
indispensable that it should be trained up by the 
exercises already prescribed for it (§ 105 — 4) until it 
Decomes capable of distinguishing the different 
qualities of voice from each other with facility and 
precision. 

3. The exercises required are nearly the same as 
those prescribed for articulation and the ear ; the atten- 
tion being specially directed to tJw quality of the vocal 
sound (§§ 105—4 ; 114). 

Under the guidance of the ear, the student should 
exercise his voice in forming, with purity of tone, 
and all the good qualities, the various sounds which 
constitute speech, both separately, and in their vari- 
ous combinations. The practice should be first 
upon the vowel sounds taken separately ; next upon 
these sounds in combination each with a single 
consonant ; then upon single words ; and finally 



The Qualities of the Voice. 307 

upon connected oral discourse. In practicing upon 
the vowels, the student should hold or prolong them 
to the utmost capacity of his breath, with all the 
good qualities, but especially aiming to prevent any 
portion of the breath from escaping in an unvocal- 
ized form, and to utter the voice without allowing it 
to become tremulous. In practicing upon words and 
sentences, he should aim to work the organs of 
speech with neatness and facility, so that they may 
perform their functions without noise. By such ex- 
ercises, the bad qualities of the voice are gradually 
corrected, and the good are developed. 

4. Great care is necessary not to strain the voice. 

The liability to this, in these and in all other elo- 
cutionary exercises, is very great ; and the inevita- 
ble result is that the voice is rendered impure, 
rough and harsh. It is believed that a voice once 
spoiled in this way, can never be restored to purity 
and sweetness. Hence in all exercises it must be 
kept down or subdued; in other words, the vocal 
organs must never be exerted to their utmost ca- 
pacity. 

5. These exercises should be performed once or tivice 
a day, for a half or a quarter of an hour at a time. 

A single exercise each day for a half hour, will 
produce excellent effects in a short time ; but for 
the best possible results, the exercise should be 
twice a day, for a quarter of an hour. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE POWEKS OF THE VOICE. 

§ 175. The powers of the voice are strength, compass and 
flexibility. 

These powers are capable of being sharply distin- 
guished from the qualities of the voice. For as the 
qualities refer to the character of the sound, regard- 
ed chiefly as pure or impure tone, so the powers of 
the voice refer to its degrees of strength and pitch, 
and to its capacity of changing from one quality, 
and one degree of force or pitch, to another. Con- 
sequently there are but three such powers, strength, 
compass and flexibility. 

§ 176. Strength of yoice is the power to utter loud vocal 
sounds. 

A strong voice is one that is capable of producing 
with ease loud sounds, in distinction from a weak 
or feeble voice, which is capable only of weak or 
feeble sounds. Strength of voice has no reference 
to quality, nor pitch, nor compass, but solely to 
loudness. Thus e. g. if the same key of a piano be 



The Powees of the Voice. 309 

touched first softly, then more forcibly, it produces 
two sounds of the same pitch and quality, but differ- 
ing in their degree of loudness. In this way, the 
same vocal organism gives forth strong or feeble 
sounds ; and in this power, different organisms are 
superior or inferior to each other. 



§ 177. Strength of yoice depends chiefly upon the strength of 
the organs of respiration, and upon the size and capacity 
of the resonant cavities. 



1. Strength in the breathing organs is essential to ex- 
pel the fo^eath with adequate force. 

We have seen that the sound of the voice is gen- 
erated by the vibrations of the vocal chords ; and 
that, whilst pitch depends upon the number of these 
vibrations, force or loudness depends upon their 
amplitude, in other wcwds, upon the width of the 
space through which the chords are made to vibrate 
(§ 103 — 2, 3, 4). Now this amplitude of the vibra- 
tions, is due to the degree of force with which the 
column of breath is driven against the chords, by 
the contraction of the diaphragm, and other muscles 
which co-operate with it in respiration. Conse- 
quently the stronger the breathing muscles, other 
things being equal, the greater the strength of voice. 

2. Adequate size and capacity of tJw resonant cavities 
contribute to the strength of the voice. 

The reason of this is that vibrations of the same 
amplitude, will not produce the same degree of loud- 
ness in resonant cavities of different sizes and capa- 



310 The Elements of Power. 

cities. The same concussion e. g. in a bell of large 
size, and of superior capacities in other respects, 
gives forth a much louder sound than it does in a 
small bell of inferior qualities. In like manner, the 
same force of breath, which causes the vocal chords 
to vibrate with the same amplitude, produces a 
much louder sound in resonant vocal cavities of 
ample size, and otherwise well constructed, than it 
does in cavities of small size, or otherwise of small 
capacity. Defects, therefore, in the breathing tubes, 
or in the larynx, pharynx, or mouth, whether from 
organic malformation, disease, or want of develop- 
ment, always tend to render the voice feeble. 



§178. Strength of voice, as an element of power in delivery, 
enables the speaker to speak with ease, with the good 
qualities and natural tones, and it is the natural symbol 
of power. 

1. Strength of voice enables the speaker to speak with 
ease, and without injury to his organs, and to be heard 
without effort or loedriness. 

It is sufficiently obvious that a speaker with a 
strong voice, can make himself heard with ease, in 
large assemblies, and in the open air, where one 
with a feeble voice cannot be heard except with 
difficulty, or not at all. For the same reason, one 
can speak for a much greater length of time than 
the other, without exhaustion or fatigue. For a 
speaker with a feeble voice soon becomes exhaust- 
ed, and all his powers of elocution enfeebled. His 
vocal organs, also, from this cause, are liable to suf- 



The Powers of the Voice. 311 

fer irreparable injury, and his general health to 
break down. This is a principal cause of the ill 
health of so many clergymen. Moreover, when the 
audience hear with difficulty, they soon become 
wearied and discontented; their appreciation of 
what they hear is unfavorably affected, and they 
cease to give their attention. But where the voice 
is of adequate strength, all these and other causes 
of feebleness are obviated, and give place to the 
opposite elements of power. 

2. It is favorable to the good qualities of the voice. 
Purity of tone requires, as we have seen (§ 174 

— &), that the voice should not be overstrained, 
nor taxed to its utmost capacity. But a speaker 
with a feeble voice can hardly refrain from exerting 
it to the utmost, in order to make himself heard, 
especially in large assemblies ; and thus it soon be- 
comes loaded with impurities. Hence a speaker 
with a strong voice can much more easily and effect- 
ually guard its purity of tone. 

3. Also, to natural tones, and to variety of tone, in 
speaking. 

One of the most fruitful causes of feebleness in 
delivery, is a certain unnaturalness in the tones of 
the voice, which is as far removed as possible from 
the tones which prevail in conversation, or common 
talking. This is due, in great part, to the straining 
and effort of the speaker to make himself heard and 
understood. When e. g. the voice is feeble, it tends 
to rise in public speaking above its natural pitch, 
especially in all animated and impassioned dis- 



312 The Elements of Power. 

course, in order to compensate by shrillness for 
what it lacks in strength. Also it tends to run 
along on this high pitch, with little variation. In 
like manner, when it is overstrained in order to 
make every word audible, it is incapable of varying 
the degree of force, for the expression of more or 
less impassioned sentiments. It can neither rise 
nor fall in pitch, nor vary in force or quality, ac- 
cording to the ever varying character of the senti- 
ments to be expressed. Hence monotony, and un- 
natural, impure, and otherwise disagreeable sounds. 
On the other hand, if the voice be of adequate 
strength, the speaker can deliver himself, even in 
the largest assemblies, in his natural, and almost in 
conversational tones, which are the point of depart- 
ure for all good speaking. From this point, he natu- 
rally rises and falls in pitch as the sentiment re- 
quires, with varying force and quality of voice, ac- 
cording to the degree of animation or passion, and 
to the greater or less importance of what he has to 
deliver. Strength of voice is thus essential to natu- 
ralness, and to that variety of force, pitch and qual- 
ity of the vocal sounds, which are among the great- 
est charms and excellences of delivery. 

4. Strength of voice is the natural symbol and ex- 
pression of power. 

From this consideration, more than all others, 
we are enabled to appreciate the vast importance of 
this element of power in delivery. For of all the 
natural symbols of power, strength of voice is the 
most striking and expressive. The African hunters 



The Powers of the Voice. 313 

tell us that the roar of the lion in his native wilds, 
produces the most awful impressions that are con- 
ceivable, of the vastness of his force ; and this im- 
pression is not more than adequate, for the lion 
has the strength of forty men. The voice of the 
cataract, and of the storm-tossed ocean, produces a 
similar impression of immeasurable force. The 
thunder itself, the most sublime of all sounds, is the 
voice of the Almighty, i. e. it is the symbol and ex- 
pression of infinite power. Accordingly, a speaker 
with a powerful voice comes before an audience, 
clothed, as it were, with power. Thereby he is en- 
abled to command their attention, and to impress his 
sentiments upon them, more powerfully than were 
otherwise possible. Hence the great orators and 
tragedians have almost always had great voices. 
The power of Cicero and Demosthenes in this re- 
spect, need not be again alluded to. But it is said 
that Garrick could speak with ease to ten thousand 
persons. The vast powers of Spurgeon's voice are 
certainly one of the greatest elements of his power 
in delivery. And it was estimated by Dr. Franklin, 
whilst listening to Whitefield preaching in the open 
air at the State House in Philadelphia, that he could 
be heard on that occasion by thirty thousand per- 
sons. In fact, the marvelous effects of Whitefiel&'s 
oratory were due, in great part, to his almost incredi- 
ble powers of voice — intellectually, he seems to have 
been a man of only moderate abilities. 



314 The Elements of Power. 

§ 179. The exercises for cultivating strength of voice, are the 
same with those prescribed for the development of the 
breathing organs, and of the resonant cavities. 

By the proper exercises, the human voice is capa- 
ble of wonderful and rapid development, to almost 
any degree of strength. It is rare to find a voice 
whose power would not be more than doubled by 
two or three months of such exercises. But it is 
indispensable to the best results that they should 
be practiced daily and systematically ; otherwise a 
great part of what is gained one day, or one week, 
is lost the next (§§ 100—4; 101—3; 102—3; 104 

1. In the exercises for strengthening tJie breathing or- 
gans, tlue sound should be gradually increased in force. 

These exercises are those which have been already 
prescribed for the diaphragm (§ 100 — 4), and lungs 
(§ 101 — 3). In this case, however, it is especially 
necessary to hold or prolong the sounds to the full 
capacity of the breath, and gradually to increase 
them in force or loudness from day to day, yet with- 
out straining the voice so as to render it impure. 
These exercises should be accompanied also with 
what is called the explosion of the voice, which con- 
sists in uttering the sound as shortly and abruptly 
as possible, and with as great force as the organs 
will bear without straining. The danger of injuring 
them in this way is very great, so that not more 
than four or five such explosions should be allowed 
each day, until they have become accustomed to 



The Powers of the Voice. 315 

the exercise. To these should be added reading 
aloud and declamation ; and the improvement will 
be much more rapid and satisfactory if these exer- 
cises are performed in the open air, which greatly 
promotes the health and vigor of the vocal organs. 
Thus the muscular organs of respiration are in- 
creased in size and force ; and strength of voice is 
developed, on precisely the same principle upon 
which the arm of the blacksmith acquires its great 
size and force by wielding the hammer, and upon 
which the muscular organism of the body is devel- 
oped by gymnastic exercises. Every one knows how 
rapidly this takes place in the latter case, and the 
improvement in the voice is not less but rather more 
rapid. 

2. In the exercises for the development of the resonant 
cavities, the immediate aim should be to enlarge tJieir 
capacity. 

These exercises are in part the same with those 
prescribed for the mouth organs (§ 104 — 4), and for 
the good qualities of the voice (§ 174 — 3). The 
result here aimed at takes place by the effort to ren- 
der the sounds, but especially the lower and lowest 
sounds in pitch of which the voice is capable, with 
constantly increasing force, purity and solidity. By 
every such effort, as any one may observe for him- 
self, nature instinctively strives to throw the interior 
organs of the mouth, throat and windpipe into such 
a position as to render the cavities as large and 
capacious as possible. In this way, therefore, their 
size and capacity of resonance is gradually in- 



316 The Elements of Power. 

creased, and strength of voice is correspondingly 
developed. 

§ 180. The compass of the voice is its range of pitch. 

A good compass of the voice consists in its capa- 
city of sounding, with purity and force, both the high 
and low notes of the musical scale. The voice is of 
small compass when on the high notes it breaks, 
or runs into falsetto, becoming shrill or screaming, 
and when it is incapable of sounding the low notes 
with fullness, force, roundness, or solidity. 



§ 181. A much greater compass of voice is required for sing- 
ing than for speaking. 

The highest excellence in singing demands a 
compass of at least three octaves, whilst in speak- 
ing, the range is seldom greater than one. Some- 
times, however, especially in the most impassioned 
oratory, a more extensive range can be employed 
with good effect. 



§ 182. The compass of the yoice depends upon the action of 
the vocal chords, and upon the capacity of the resonant 
cavities. 

When the vocal chords are so finely organized 
that a small number of vibrations will render .a per- 
fect sound, and this sound has a good resonance in 
the trachea and bronchial tubes, then the voice has 
a good command of the low notes, or chest-tones. 



The Powees of the Yoice. 317 

When the chords are capable of a great number of 
vibrations in a given time, and the upper cavities of 
the mouth give a good resonance, then it has a 
good command of the high notes, or head-tones. 
Where either of these conditions is wanting, the 
voice is wanting in range, either upwards or down- 
wards. 

§ 183. Adequate compass of voice is an important element of 
power in delivery. 

A great range of the voice upwards is not of so 
much importance in speaking, as an ample com- 
mand of the lower and lowest tones — these, beyond 
all comparison, are the most effective in oratory. A 
voice full, rich and mellow on the low notes, is a 
mighty element of power in delivery. A voice of 
good compass, however, in both directions is re- 
quired, in order to that variety of pitch and inflec- 
tion, which is essential to the adequate expression 
of the ever-varying movements of thought and feel- 
ing ; otherwise a dull and stupefying monotony can 
hardly be avoided. It is indispensable in all ani- 
mated and impassioned speaking. For deep and 
strong emotion cannot be fully expressed on the 
middle or common pitch of the voice, but it re- 
quires both the high and the low sounds, often in 
rapid alternation. In impassioned questioning e. g. 
the voice must rise or fall by inflection through a 
whole octave. Hence, as an element of power in 
delivery, adequate compass of voice is only inferior 
to adequate strength. 



318 The Elements of Power. 

§ 184. The exercises for developing the compass of the voice, 
consist in sounding the high and low notes of the musical 
scale. 

These exercises are very much the same with 
those prescribed for the ear (§ 105 — 4). Almost 
every voice, however, has a range of pitch, adequate 
for speaking, in one direction or the other, either 
upwards or downwards. The student should aim, 
therefore, to develop his voice in the direction in 
which it most needs it. The exercises for extend- 
ing the range in either direction, consist in sound- 
ing the notes of the musical scale, running up as 
high as the voice will rise without breaking, or tak- 
ing the falsetto character, and down as low as it can 
be made to descend. It is not necessary that its 
lowest notes should be # perfectly pure, or very strong, 
at first ; it may be practiced at first on notes so low 
as to be both feeble and impure ; but it should be 
the aim of the student to bring out these low sounds 
with ever greater purity and force. This practice 
should be accompanied with daily reading aloud, 
and declamation, on a low or high pitch, according 
to the direction in which the voice may require de- 
velopment. 



g 185. Flexibility of voice is its power of changing its pitch, 
quality, or force ; and it depends chiefly upon facility of 
control over the organs. 

This power consists in the faculty of changing 
from one pitch, or one quality, or one degree of force, 



The Powees of the Voice. 319 

to another. When these changes can be effected 
with facility and rapidity, the voice is one of great 
flexibility; when they cannot be effected without 
difficulty, or otherwise than slowly, it has little flexi- 
bility. This power depends upon a neat and smooth 
and proportionate construction of the vocal organs ; 
but more especially, upon a perfect voluntary control 
over them, by which only can they be made to 
assume those rapid and facile changes of position 
and action, which are the immediate causes of these 
variations of sound. 



§ 186. Flexibility of voice is an essential element of power in 
delivery. 

This power of voice is a fundamental element of 
all animated and forcible delivery ; the changes of 
sound which depend upon it, are the very life and 
spirit of expression. It is required, moreover, in the 
utterance of every word and syllable, which do not 
maintain the same pitch, or degree of force, through- 
out. In further illustration of its importance, it may 
be sufficient to refer to those numerous occasions on 
which almost every speaker is painfully conscious 
that his voice is not under his control in this respect ; 
that it does not answer to the changes which the ex- 
pression of the changing sentiment requires; in 
other words, he does not express what he really 
means and feels. The cause of this is that the voice 
is wanting in flexibility. 



320 The Elements of Powee. 



§ 187. The exercises for the development of this power, con- 
sist in rapid and extreme transitions from one degree of 
pitch and force, and from one quality, to another. 

The exercises prescribed for obtaining the most 
perfect control of the vocal organs, are the best for 
the attainment of flexibility. The references to 
these need not be again repeated. In addition, the 
student should practice his voice in the most rapid 
transitions from one degree of force and pitch, and 
from one quality of sound, to another. He should 
select for declamation the most animated and impas- 
sioned passages, because they require the greatest 
variety of pitch, force and quality of sound. But 
probably the best exercise is that of reading aloud 
or speaking dialogues, in which the reader repre- 
sents alternately a number of interlocutors. The 
animation which is characteristic of this species 
of discourse, and the frequent and rapid changes of 
the voice which are requisite to maintain the dis- 
tinction of persons and characters, afford the most 
effective aids to the development of this power. 
Humorous selections also are good for this pur- 
pose. 



CHAPTEK VIH. 

PITCH AND INFLECTION. 

§ 188. Pitch is the character of sounds as high or low, grave 
or acute. 

The pitch of a sound is something entirely differ- 
ent both from its force and its quality, being de- 
termined, as we have seen, by the number of vibra- 
tions which take place in a given length of time, in 
the sounding body (§ 103 — 4). The keys of a piano- 
forte exemplify, in the simplest manner, the distinc- 
tions of pitch. On the extreme left of the key-board, 
we have the lowest bass note, the most grave sound ; 
as the hand moves to the right, each succeeding note 
rises in pitch above the preceding, until we reach 
the extreme right, which gives us the highest, or 
most acute sound. The variations in pitch of which 
the human voice is capable, in the exercise of com- 
pass and flexibility, are very great. The extent, 
rapidity and accuracy, in varying the pitch, which is 
attained by great vocalists, especially w T hen we con- 
sider that the vocal chords, upon which these 
changes depend, cannot vary in length more than 
one eighth of an inch, is one of the wonders of our 



322 The Elements of Power. 

physiological constitution, and a striking example of 
the control which mind or life is capable of exercis- 
ing over matter. 

§ 189. Inflection is a function of pitch. 

In the books on Elocution, inflection is commonly 
treated under a distinct head from that of pitch. 
But it is properly a function of pitch, that is, it is 
one way of varying the pitch of sounds. For there 
are two distinct forms of such variation, which are 
characterized as discrete and concrete, each of which 
has important functions in the expression of thought 
and sentiment. 

1. Discrete variations are skips from one degree of 
pitch to another. 

These variations may be exemplified by sound- 
ing in succession any two or more of the keys of an 
instrument. This will give sounds of different pitch, 
with intervals of silence between them — one sound 
does not slide into another. Hence such variations 
are called skips, in distinction from slides. 

2. Concrete variations are slides from one pitch to 
another. 

These may be exemplified by moving the stop-fin- 
ger up or down one of the strings of a violin, whilst 
the bow is drawn across it. A continuous or sliding 
sound, from one degree of pitch to another, will 
thus be produced. Such variations, called slides, in 
distinction from skips, are properly inflections. 



Pitch and Inflection. 323 

§ 190. Iii music the discrete variations predominate, in speech 
the concrete. 

Both of these variations are heard in music and 
in speech, but the predominant form in each is 
different. 

1. In music the discrete changes predominate. 

This is evident from the structure of the musical 
staff, which is composed of alternate lines and 
spaces, on which the notes, one above another, repre- 
sent sounds of different pitch, with intervals of 
silence between them. The notation of the slide in 
music, though it frequently occurs, is comparatively 
rare. That these discrete changes predominate in 
music, is further evinced by the fact that music can 
be produced from keyed instruments, which are 
totally incapable of executing the slide. Yet the 
judicious introduction of the concrete changes of 
pitch in music, is one of the most important elements 
of its expressive power, for the reason that they im- 
part a certain speaking character to the sounds. 
Hence also the acknowledged superiority of stringed 
instruments, from their capacity of executing these 
speaking slides. 

2. In speech the concrete variations predominate. 
This is evident to the ear. For if we give close 

attention to conversation, especially to the free and 
animated conversation of ladies, we easily perceive 
that their voices are continually sliding up and down 
the musical scale, with amazing rapidity and flexi- 
bility ; in fact, as we have seen, every syllable ter- 



324= The Elements of Power. 

minates in a slide (§ 118). Hence, when we speak 
of discrete variations in speech, we do not mean 
that there is no slide at all in these sounds ; for they 
all end in a sliding vocule, or vanish ; but only that 
the slide does not reach from one sound to the 
other, and that the interval is reckoned from one 
radical pitch to the other. This predominance of 
the sliding sounds, or concrete changes of pitch, is, 
in fact, the differential character of speech as distin- 
guished from song. Hence very much of that 
vicious speaking which is called sing-song, will be 
found to arise from the introduction of the discrete, 
in place of the concrete variations. 

§ 191. Both melody and expression depend upon the varia- 
tions of pitch. 

This is equally true in music and in speech. In 
the case of the latter, it is evident from the consider- 
ation that, apart from these variations, speech would 
consist of a succession of articulate sounds on the 
same line of pitch, in which certainly there could be 
neither melody nor expression of sentiment. Such, 
however, is the nature of the vocal organism, that it 
is perhaps impossible to pronounce the shortest sen- 
tence in a perfect monotone. But it is easy and 
common enough to have so little variation in speak- 
ing as to render it powerless. Any one can make 
this plain to himself by pronouncing the following 
lines with as little variation of pitch as possible. 

The evil that men do lives after them ; 
The good is oft interred with their bones. 



Pitch and Inflection. 325 

But when they are rendered with the proper vari- 
ations, both their melody and expression are at once 
brought out. 

§ 192. Melody in speech consists in such discrete variations 
of pitch in succession as are pleasing to the ear. 

If the following extract be properly read, it will 
readily be perceived that the several clauses and 
phrases range on various degrees of radical pitch, 
and that such variations are essential to its pleasing 
melody. 

It is an impression which we cannot rid ourselves of if we would, 
when sitting by the body of a friend, that he has still a conscious- 
ness of our presence ; that, though the common concerns of the 
world have no more to do with him, he has still a love and care 
for us. The face which we had so long been familiar with, when 
it was all life and motion, seems only in a state of rest. We know 
not how to make it real to ourselves, that the body before us is 
not a living thing. 

Now, in order to attain this melody, the student 
will do well to avoid all attempts to apply those 
multiplied and minute rules which the elocutionists 
have given us, however accurate those rules may be ; 
for it is more than probable that, by such attempts, 
he will lose more than it is possible to gain. The 
almost inevitable result will be sing-song, instead of 
melodious speech. He will best succeed in cultivat- 
ing this grace of prose speech, by applying his ear, 
from time to time, to his sentences, that the ear may 
judge for itself, so to speak, whether it is satisfied 
or pleased with the successive variations of pitch. 



326 The Elements of Power. 

"When his own ear is thus satisfied, the speaker 
may hope that the melody of his sentences will be 
such as to please the ears of his audience. 



§ 103. Violations of melody consist in monotony, sing-song, 
false changes in the body of the sentence, false cadence, 
and too great variations. 

According to the principle just laid down, it 
would be useless, and perhaps worse, to attempt to 
specify all the violations of melody, which are con- 
stantly occurring, even in the delivery of good speak- 
ers. Yet it may be useful to characterize, in some 
general way, those that are the most common and 
most damaging. 

1. Monotony, or too little variation of pitch. 

The voice in speaking may run along nearly on 
the same line of radical pitch, through a whole sen- 
tence, or paragraph, or even a discourse. This fre- 
quently arises from commencing too high, so that 
the compass of the voice does not allow of its rising 
and falling in melodious variations. The result, in 
this case, is a kind of monotonous rant, which is ex- 
tremely unpleasant, and even painful to hear. In 
other cases, the pitch of the voice is too low through- 
out. This may be due to a want of emotion in the 
speaker, or to timidity, or to other causes. The re- 
sult is a monotonous tameness, which is worse per- 
haps than rant. In both cases; there is no melody 
in the delivery. 



Pitch and Inflection. 327 

2. Sing-song, or recurrence of tlie same or similar 
variations. 

The too frequent recurrence of the same changes 
of pitch, is a very common violation of melody. 
The speaker commences all his sentences nearly or 
quite on the same pitch ; in each sentence, he runs 
over nearly the same routine of changes ; at each 
change, he delivers a few words as nearly as possi- 
ble on the same line of radical pitch ; and he closes 
his sentences with about the same cadence. In 
such cases, moreover, the discrete changes will 
commonly be found to predominate over the con- 
crete, accompanied with an undue prolongation of 
the last syllables of the words. The effect of all this 
is what is called " the college tone," or " college 
sing-song," which turns speaking into singing, or 
rather into the dullest kind of chanting, and is ex- 
tremely difficult to correct when it has once be- 
come a habit. 

3. False changes in the body of the sentence. 

Many speakers end almost every clause in their 
sentences with the full downward skip, allowing the 
voice to fall as low at the end of clauses as at the 
end of the sentence. This renders the delivery, with 
respect to melody, extremely harsh and abrupt. It 
is always, moreover, a violation of melody to let the 
voice fall where it ought to rise, and vice versa, 
although the determination of these cases belongs 
rather .to expression than to melody. 

4. False cadences, or false clianges at the close of the 
sentence. 



328 The Elements of Power. 

The character of a sentence, with respect to melo- 
dy, is most conspicuous at its close. In a sentence 
ending with the falling inflection, melody, as well 
as expression, commonly requires that the voice 
should fall on the last word to the pitch on which it 
commenced. This fall, moreover, ought not to be 
a skip, but a slide ; i. e. the last word should begin 
quite or nearly on the pitch of the preceding, and 
the voice should slide down on that word to the 
initial pitch of the sentence. Instead of which, 
many speakers drop the voice on the last word by a 
skip, often of two or three degrees of the scale, the 
effect of which is always more or less of the sing- 
song. Others close their sentences on the middle 
instead of the lowest pitch, the effect of which is 
like that of ending a tune on a sound not in full ac- 
cord with the keynote. Others again, and not a few, 
close every sentence with a little rising inflection on 
the last syllable, like the upward flourish of a little 
dog's tail, which renders the gravest discourse 
ludicrous. 

5. Too frequent and too great changes of pitch. 

When the variations of pitch are too frequent or 
too great, especially the slides of the voice, the 
effect in public speaking is to render it too conver- 
sational. The measure and proportion of the varia- 
tions to each other, which are essential to melodi- 
ous speech, are lost ; and the delivery is wanting in 
dignity, and in respect for the audience. 



Pitch and Inflection. 829 



§ 194. The principal function of pitch and inflection, is in 
the expression of sentiment. 

The changes of pitch, both concrete and discrete, 
upwards and downwards, are one of the principal 
means of attaining to full and adequate expression, 
both of thought and feeling. In fact, there are in- 
numerable differences and shades of sentiment 
which are incapable of being expressed by any 
other means. Hence it is absolutely necessary for 
the student to give the subject his attention, bear- 
ing in mind, however, that the few principles and 
rules which follow, do constantly modify and Kmit 
each other. For although the writers on Elocution 
have given us a vast body of rules, some of them as 
many as fifty, to determine where the upward and 
downward skips, and where the rising and falling 
slides, should occur, it is perfectly certain that, ex- 
cept in a few cases, no invariable rules can be laid 
down. 



§ 195. The sentiment determines the changes of pitch and 
inflection. 

This is the most general principle applicable to 
the subject. It applies to questions equally with 
all other forms of expression. For although it is 
often supposed that a question mark (?) indicates 
the rising inflection, it will be found, upon examina- 
tion, that questions take either the rising or falling 
inflection, according to the sentiment which they are 



330 The Elements of Power. 

intended to express, and the one perhaps as often 
as the other. This may be evinced by one or two 
examples. 

1. The former part of the following sentence re- 
quires a high pitch of the voice, reaching the high- 
est pitch on the words, weak, and unable ; whilst the 
latter part, although a question, because the senti- 
ment gives the principal emphasis to the word, when, 
closes with the full downward slide on the word, 
stronger. 

They tell us, sir, that we are weak, and unable to cope with so 
formidable an adversary ; but when shall we be stronger ? 

2. In the following questions, the last words take 
either inflection, according to the sentiment which 
the speaker intends to express. If the sentiment 
require the emphasis on the verb, is, both questions 
will close with the downward slide ; but if the prin- 
cipal emphasisi be placed upon the words, servant 
and slave, each will take a strong rising inflection. 

Is Israel a servant ? Is he a home-born slave ? 

"We shall find, in all that follows on this subject, 
that the form of the sentence, whether interrogative 
or affirmative, has little or nothing to do with de- 
termining its changes of pitch and inflection, and 
that these depend wholly upon the character of the 
sentiment to be expressed. 



Pitch and Inflection. 331 



§ 196. Higher and lower ranges of pitch and inflection ex- 
press different degrees of emotion and passion. 

This is another general principle, and one of the 
greatest importance. For if we utter the exclama- 
tion, ah ! expressing a slight degree of surprise, it 
naturally takes a slight rising inflection, running 
through the interval of the second or third of the 
musical scale ; a greater degree of surprise will ex- 
press itself by an upward slide on the word, of a 
fourth or fifth ; and for a very strong expression of 
this feeling, the rising inflection will traverse a 
whole octave. In like manner, the word, no, express- 
ing a mild dissent, will commence on the middle 
pitch of the voice, and take a slight falling inflec- 
tion ; when pronounced so as to express a stronger 
dissent, it will commence on a higher pitch, and 
end in a longer downward slide ; and when it ex- 
presses a very strong or passionate dissent, the 
downward slide will run through a whole octave. 
Thus, no, no, NO. 



§ 197. Thoughts without emotion express themselves on the 
middle pitch of the voice, with the least variations. 

Plain explanatory passages, requiring little em- 
phasis, being altogether destitute of any peculiar 
emotion, are thus expressed. Also, where the speaker 
is supposed to be incapable of human passion, as in 
the case of a spiritual being, an apparition or ghost, 
his delivery should be as nearly as possible in 
monotone, that is, on the same line of pitch. In 



332 The Elements of Power. 

this way the words of the spectre in the book of 
Job,* should be pronounced. 

Shall mortal man be more just than God ? 
Shall a man be more pure than his Maker ? 

So also the speech of the ghost in Hamlet. 

Thus was I, sleeping, by a brother's hand, 
Of life, of crown, of queen, at once despatched ; 
Cut off even in the blossoms of my sin, 
Unhouseled, disappointed, unannealed ; 
. No reckoning made, but sent to my account, 

With all my imperfections on my head. 



§ 198. Calm and equable emotions express themselves on the 
middle pitch, with slight variations. 

In the expression of sentiments in which there is 
no peculiar strength or vivacity of feeling, the voice 
ranges on its natural or middle pitch, with little 
variation, whether of skip or slide, upwards or 
downwards. The variations, in this case, will seldom 
pass beyond one tone or degree of the scale. This 
is the predominant interval in common speech. It 
has upon the ear a pleasing effect, analogous to that 
produced upon the eye by the prevailing green of 
nature. In the words of Dr. Rush, " The ear has its 
green as well as the eye, and the interval of the sec- 
ond is widely spread to relieve sensation from the 
fatiguing stimulus of more vivid impression." 

* Job, cli. ill. v. 17. 






Pitch and Inflection. 333 



Writers of every age have endeavored to show that pleasure is 
in us, and not in the objects offered for our amusement. If the 
soul be happily disposed, everything becomes capable of affording 
entertainment, and distress will almost want a name. Every oc- 
currence passes in review like the figures in a procession ; some 
may be awkward, others ill-dressed, but none, except a fool, is for 
this enraged with the master of the ceremonies. 



§ 199. Strong emotions express themselves in more frequent 
and greater variations of pitch and inflection. 

When the emotions are more animated and ex- 
cited than in the preceding case, the voice naturally 
changes its pitch more frequently, and ranges 
through wider intervals. In this case, the range 
both of skip and slide, up and down, will be to the 
extent of a third or fifth of the scale. 

Is not this crime enough to turn Mercy herself into an execu- 
tioner ! You convict for murder — here is the hand that murdered 
innocence. You convict for treason — here is the vilest disloyalty 
to friendship. You convict for robbery — here is one who plunder- 
ed Virtue of her most precious jewel. 



§ 200, Violent passions express themselves in the greatest 
variations of pitch and inflection. 

In fine, when violent and uncontrollable passions 
clamor for expression, the voice rises to its highest 
and sinks to its lowest pitch, traversing, with rapid 
and extreme variations, often the whole octave. 
This will be found to be the case in any true ex- 
pression of the insane remorse and grief of Othello, 
over the body of the murdered Desdemona, after he 
had discovered her innocence. 



334 The Elements of Power. 



O cursed slave ! Whip me, ye devils, 
From the possession of this heavenly sight ! 
Blow me about in winds — roast me in sulphur- 
Wash me in steep-down gulfs of liquid fire ! 
O Desdemona ! Desdemona ! Dead ! 
Dead ! O ! O ! O ! 



§ 201. Subdued emotions of grief, sorrow, pity, desire, love, 
hope, and fear, express themselves in variations of the 
semitone. 

The subdued and chastened expression of these, 
and other similar affections and passions, very fre- 
quently consists of semitone variations, in which the 
voice rises and falls, both concretely and discretely, 
a semitone above and below the middle line of pitch. 
Of course, this rule does not exclude other varia- 
tions, but these are the most frequent, and to a cer- 
tain extent indispensable. Hence they are much 
heard in the language of complaint, condolence, 
and of audible prayer. In this last case, if the 
greater concrete variations of the second, third and 
fifth, predominate, the result is an irreverent, unde- 
votional, conversational manner, which suggests 
that he who is praying feels himself to be almost on 
a footing of equality with the Being addressed, and 
which consequently is extremely offensive. It has 
been remarked that children cry in semitones. 
Hence the pathetic complaint of Desdemona, after 
being charged by her husband with infidelity, can- 
not be adequately rendered but by means of these 
semitone variations of pitch. 



Pitch and Inflection. 335 

logo. Madam, how is it with you ? 

Desdemona (with sobs and tears). 

Alas ! I cannot tell. Those that do teach young babes, 

Do it with gentle means and easy tasks. 

He might have chid me so, for, in good faith, 

I am a child to chiding. 



§ 202. Grave and earnest, but not impassioned sentiments, 
express themselves in variations of the second and third, 
and mostly in the falling 1 inflections. 

In the following example these variations prevail, 
and every clause ends in a downward slide of the 
voice. 

Be wise to-day ; 'tis madness to defer. 
Next day the fatal precedent will plead. 
Thus on, till wisdom is pushed out of life. 
Procrastination is the thief of time ; 
Year after year it steals, till all are fled, 
And to the mercies of a moment, leaves 
The vast concerns of an eternal scene. 



§ 203. Sentiments of great animation and vivacity express 
themselves in variations of the third and fifth, with fre- 
quent upward slides. 

As the interval of the second is the green of the 
ear, so " these variations of the third and fifth are the 
lights and shadows of discourse, and are indispen- 
sable to give life and power to the vocal picture." 
They predominate in the expression of wit and play- 
fulness, and of all sentiments of a highly animated 
character. Skips of the fifth, indeed, do not often 



336 The Elements of Power. 

occur in such discourse, but slides of this interval 
are not at all uncommon. In animated and playful 
conversation, the range of the voice up and down 
these intervals, both in skips and slides, is incessant. 
When they prevail in what is intended to be grave 
and dignified, and, of course, not highly impassioned 
discourse, they lower its dignity, and render it con- 
versational in style or manner. The wit and play- 
fulness and ever restless vivacity of Falstaff, afford 
constant examples of these variations. 

A good sherris sack hath a two-fold operation in it. It ascends 
me into the brain, and dries me there all the foolish and dull and 
crudy vapors which environ it ; makes it apprehensive, quick, 
forgetive (inventive) full of nimble, fiery and delectable shapes ; 
which, delivered o'er to the voice, the tongue, which is the birth, 
becomes excellent wit. The second property of- your excellent 
sherris, is the warming of the blood ; which, before cold and set- 
tled, left the liver white and pale, which is the badge of pusilla- 
nimity and cowardice : but the sherris warms it, and makes it 
course from the inwards to the parts extreme ; it illumineth the 
face, which as a beacon gives warning to all the rest of this little 
kingdom, man, to arm ; and then the vital commoners, and inland 
petty spirits, muster me all to their captain, the heart ; who, great 
and puffed up with this retinue, doth any deed of courage— and 

this valor comes of sherris Hereof comes it that Prince Harry 

is valiant. For the cold blood he did naturally inherit from his 
father, he hath, like lean, sterile and bare land, manured, hus- 
banded and tilled, with excellent endeavor of drinking good, and 
good store of fertile sherris ; [so] that he is become very hot and 
valiant. If I had a thousand sons, the first human principle I 
would teach them, should be to forswear thin potations, and addict 
themselves to sack. 



Pitch and Inflection. 337 



§ 201. Animated expressions of certainty, positiveness, and 
determination, range through intervals of the third and 
fifth, mostly with falling- inflections. 

The following passage affords an example of snch 
intervals, more of the third, however, than of the 
fifth, and nearly every clause ends with a downward 
slide. 

Nay, more — I can, and I will say, that as a peer of parliament, as 
speaker of this right honorable honse, as keeper of the great seal, 
as gnardian of his majesty's conscience, as Lord High Chancellor 
of England — nay even in that character alone, in which the 
noble duke would think ifc an affront to be considered, but which 
charact r none can deny me, as a man — I am at this moment as 
respectable, I beg leave to add, as much respected, as the proudest 
peer I now look down upon. 



§ 205. Animated expressions of uncertainty, hesitation, sur- 
prise and irony, range through intervals of the third and 
fifth, mostly with rising- inflections. 

The bitter irony of the Prophet Elijah, ridiculing 
the prophets of Baal, exhibits these changes of pitch 
and inflection in a very striking manner, although 
on several of the words, the inflections may be down- 
wards with the best effect. On several of the words, 
also, the wave, or double inflection (§ 213) is re- 
quired. 

Ciy aloud, for he is a god. Either he is talking, or he is pursu- 
ing, or he is on a journey, or perad venture he sleepeth, and must be 
awaked. 

So also in the bitter irony of Job's reply to his 
friends. 



338 The Elements of Power. 



No doubt, ye are the people, and wisdom will die with you, 

Solemn irony, such as that of our Saviour, ad- 
dressed to his sleeping disciples, more frequently 
takes the falling inflection. 

Sleep on now, and take your rest ; (this is, indeed, a time for you 
to sleep !) for the Son of Man is betrayed into the hands of sinners* 

In the reply of the woman at the well of Samaria 
to our Lord, we have a fine expression of doubt 
and surprise, with these strong upward inflections 
on the words in italics. 

Sir, thou hast nothing to draw with, and the well is deep ; from 
whence then hast thou that living water ? Art thou greater than 
our father Jacob, who gave us the well, and drank thereof himself, 
and his children, and his cattle ? 



§ 206. Questions which require answers, if the emphasis be 
not on the interrogative word, commoniy take the rising 
inflection. 

Of such questions there are two classes : 

1. Those expressing a desire for information, which 
is to be furnished by the answer ; as in the following 
example, in which the words, looked, and frowningly, 
both take the rising inflection, but the latter a much „ 
longer one than the former. 

What ! looked he frowningly ? 

2. Those intended to draw a mental response from 
the audience, but which require no vocal answer. 
Thus the following questions are intended to call 
forth the most emphatic mental response ; conse- 



Pitch and Inflection. 339 

quently the words, now, and stoop, take the strongest 
rising inflections. 

What ! are ye daunted now ? Now will ye stoop ? 



§ .207. Questions which express affirmation, except when the 
emphasis is on the last word, commonly take the falling 
inflection. 

This rule might have been expressed nearly as 
well in the form of the converse of the preceding, 
viz : Questions which require no answer, either vocal 
or mental, commonly take the falling inflection. For 
the principal reason why questions require no an- 
swer, is that they express affirmation. In applying 
the rule in either form, it is necessary to scrutinize 
the question narrowly, to see whether it does not re- 
quire a mental response. In the following questions, 
the italicized words all close with the falling slide. 

Have I not reason to look pale and dead ? 

Is she not with the dead, the quiet dead, where all is peace ? 



% 208. Questions in which the principal emphasis is on a sub- 
stantive verb, or an auxiliary, commonly take the falling 
inflection. 

Cases in which the substantive verb or auxiliary 
is the last word in the sentence, are exceptions to 
this rule, as in the questions, He is ? They have ? 
in which the last words take the rising slide. The 
following are examples under the rule. 



340 The Elements of Power. 

Bid he show himself a brother? Is he not rightly called a sup- 
planter ? Can I do otherwise ? Must I not do it ? Have I not 
given him enough ? 

In these, and all similar cases, the questions close 
with falling inflections. But if the principal empha- 
sis were on any other words, the questions would all 
take the rising slides, as follows. 

Did he show himself a brother ? Is he not rightly called a sup- 
planter ? Have I not given him enough ? 

§ 209. Questions in which the interrogative words, such as 
who, which, what, when, whence, where, why, how, are 
followed by other words, commonly take the falling 
inflection. 

This rule is nearly or quite universal, and one of 
great importance. For this class of questions is 
probably more numerous than all others taken to- 
gether ; and the attempt to render them with the 
rising inflection, mars the elocution of a great number 
of speakers. In the following, and all similar cases, 
the questions end with falling slides. 

From whence then hast thou that living water ? For why will 
ye die ? death, where is thy sting ? grave, where is thy vic- 
tory ? Who shall deliver me from the body of this death ? 

In the case of such double questions as, When, 
did you say? and in case the interrogative is the 
last or sole word in the question, it may take either 
the rising or falling slide. If e. g. I say, He is 
now in Baltimore; and you, not perfectly under- 
standing me, ask, Where ? or Where, did you say ? 
the question will always take the rising inflection. 



Pitch and Inflection. 341 

But if I say, He is now lying very ill, and you ask, 
Where ? the question will take the falling slide. 



§ 210. Double questions, implying a negative in the former, 
and an affirmation in the latter, take the rising inflection 
on the former, and the falling on the latter. 

This rule illustrates the importance of this whole 
subject of inflection in a very striking manner. 
For such questions as the following, 

Was he a poet ? or an orator ? 

are susceptible of a great variety of meanings, which 
can be expressed in no other way than by different 
inflections. For if in this question, I would ask 
whether the person was either a poet or an orator, or 
neither, both words, poet and orator, take the rising 
inflection. If I would affirm that he was neither, 
the emphasis being on the substantive verb, was, 
then both take the falling slide. But if I mean to 
deny that he was a poet, and to affirin that he was 
an orator, or if I would learn which of the two he 
was, the former question takes the upward, the lat- 
ter the downward slide ; while, to distinguish those 
two last cases from each other, we have to resort to 
a diiTerent emphasis on the word, orator. Again, 

Is a candle brought to put under a bushel, or under a bed ? 

This question in itself is capable of a similar variety 
of meanings. But because its object is to call forth a 



342 The Elements of Power. 

mental response, affirming that a candle is not brought 
to be put under a bushel, nor under a bed, the empha- 
sis being *m bushel, and bed, both words take the 
rising inflection. But now, if the rising inflection be 
given to the former clause, and the falling to the 
latter, the question will express either a desire to 
learn which of the two is the proper place for a 
candle, or it will affirm that a candle is not brought 
to be placed under a bushel, but is emphatically to 
be put under a bed. 

Let any one try these changes, and he cannot fail 
to satisfy himself of the great significance of the 
inflections of oral speech. 



§ 211. Words and phrases in pairs commonly take, the first a 
rising, the second a falling inflection. 

This variation is a requirement both of melody 
and of expression. It is exemplified in the follow- 
ing. 

For I am persuaded that neither death nor life, nor angels, nor 
-principalities nor powers, nor things present nor things to come, nor 
height nor depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate 
ns from the love of God, which is Christ Jesus our Lord. 



§ 212. The principal inflections always occur on the emphatic 
words. 

This is equally true in questions and all other 
sentences. It will require more full treatment under 
the head of emphasis. In asking questions, it is a 



Pitch and Inflection. 343 

common error to let the voice rise on an inclined 
plane, as it were, equably from the beginning to the 
end of the sentence. It is not possible to give ade- 
quate expression to the sentiment in this way. The 
principal inflection in questions should always be 
given to the most emphatic word ; and in order to 
do this, the voice must often fall on the preceding 
words to a low pitch. 

Thus, in the following example, the voice rises by 
inflection on the first, seems, through a fifth or an oc- 
tave, and the following word, Madam, is pronounced 
on the high pitch thus attained, or with a slight fall. 

Seems, Madam? 
Nay, it is — I know not seems. 

Again, in the following, the rising inflection on 
who, king, father, rims through a fifth or an octave, 
and in order to this, the voice must fall from king to 
the next word through a like interval. 

Saw who ? 
My Lord, the King, your father. 
The King ? my father ? 

The case is similar in the following example, in 
which, after a full rise on the word, dog, the voice 
runs along on the high pitch thus attained to the 
word, thing, on which occurs another slight rise. 

Is thy servant a dog, that he should do this great thing ? 

Once more : 

Moneys is your suit. 
What should I say to you ? Should I not say, 
Hath a dog money ? Is it possible, 
That a cur should raise three thousand ducats ? 



3M The Elements of Poweb. 

Here upon the emphatic words, dog, and cur, the 
voice should rise in an impassioned slide through a 
fifth or an octave, and the words that follow in each 
question, should be pronounced on the high pitch 
thus attained, with another slight rise on the last 
words. 



§ 213. The wave, or circumflex variation of pitch, is used to 
express drollery, impassioned irony, sarcasm, and sneer. 

This variation of pitch is a combination of the 
two slides on the same word, and often on the same 
syllable. Sometimes the upward movement comes 
first, and sometimes the downward. The elocution- 
ists run into great minuteness in the treatment of 
this element of expression; what they have given 
us can hardly be made practical to any but the 
most thorough students. It is true, however, that 
these waves of the voice are often extremely effec- 
tive in the expression of their appropriate senti- 
ments. Those who would see them thoroughly dis- 
cussed, are referred to Dr. Rush, and Professors 
Mandeville and Day. Here an example or two 
must suffice. 

Hereof comes it that Prince Harry is valiant. 

On the word, valiant, the voice runs up and down 
through a fifth. So on the word, you, in the follow- 
ing. 

You Prince of Wales ! 






Pitch and Inflection. 345 

Again, in the words, Daniel and now, in the follow- 
ing. 

A second Daniel, a Daniel, Jew. 

Now, Infidel, I have thee on the hip .... 

A Daniel, still I say, a second Daniel. 

I thank thee, Jew, for teaching me that word. 



CHAPTEE IX. 

TIME AND PAUSE. 

§ 214. The time occupied m the delivery of thoughts and sen- 
timents, is an element of their expression.— Pause is a 
function of time. 

"We have seen that increasing the time of syllables 
is one form of accentuation (§ 126) ; and we shall 
hereafter see that it is also an element of emphasis, 
(§ 235). But here we have to consider the time 
which is occupied in the delivery of a passage, whe- 
ther a clause, or sentence, or paragraph, or general 
division of a discourse, in its relations to the expres- 
sion of the meaning and sentiment. For the various 
grammatical and logical relations of thought cannot be 
fully expressed in speech, otherwise than by corres- 
ponding modifications of time and pause. Some 
thoughts and sentiments require to be slowly deliv- 
ered, with pauses of considerable length between the 
words and parts of the discourse ; others more ra- 
pidly, with shorter pauses. When these requirements 
are violated, the speaking is either powerless, or its 
power is greatly diminished. Only the most ganeral 
principles, however can be here laid down, chiefly for 



Time and Pause. 347 

fche purpose of drawing the attention of the student 
fco the subject, that he may be led to consider and 
determine for himself, in each case, what modifica- 
tions of time and pause may be required by the 
character of the thoughts and sentiments which he 
has to express. 



§215. Eleyated, sublime, solemn and sorrowful sentiments 
require slow time. 

This is one of the most obvious general rules of 
expression. Such sentiments naturally prompt to 
slow movements of every other kind, besides that of 
speaking. A burial procession moves slowly. A 
dead-march, or funereal dirge, is performed in slow 
time. In the same way, elevated, sublime, solemn and 
sorrowful sentiments require to be slowly delivered. 
A rapid delivery of such sentiments destroys their 
effect, and turns them into burlesque. It is as incon- 
gruous as the performance of a dead march in 
quick time, or as the galloping of a funeral proces- 
sion. Yet, however slow the enunciation may be, 
it must never fail to maintain a firm and steady 
movement ; and it must be carefully guarded against 
becoming too slow, which would render it dull and 
tiresome, or put the audience to sleep. The following 
passage affords a good example of slow time. 

Behold, I show you a mystery ; we shall not all sleep, but we 
shall all be changed— in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at 
the last trump . For the trumpet shall sound, and the dead shall 
be raised, and we shall be changed. For this corruptible must put 



348 The Elements of Power. 

on incorruption, and this mortal must put on immortality. So 
when this corruptible shall have put on incorruption, and this 
mortal shall have put on immortality, then shall be brought to 
pass the saying that is written, Death is swallowed up in victory. 
O death, where is thy sting ? O grave, where is thy victory ? 



§ 216. Condensed, abstruse, and obscure passages require 
slow time* 

The reason of this rule is that, where the thought 
is difficult or obscure from any cause, more time 
must be allowed to enable the audience to possess 
themselves of it — they must have more time than 
otherwise would be required, to elicit the sense or 
meaning of the discourse ; — if it be rapidly delivered, 
it becomes unintelligible. Here, as before, however, 
it is very important to guard against too great slow- 
ness, and for the same reason (§ 215). In the fol- 
lowing example, very slow time, and long pauses are 
required, because the thought is both condensed and 
obscure, and at the same time the sentiments are 
solemn and sublime. 

Thou from primeval nothingness did'st call, 
First chaos, then existence. Lord, on thee 
Eternity had its foundation ; all 
Sprang forth from thee ; of light, joy, harmony 
Sole origin ; all life, all beauty thine. 
Thy Word created all, and doth create ; 
Thy splendor fills all space with rays divine. 
Thou art, and wert, and shalt be, glorious, great. 
Life-giving, life-preserving Potentate. 



Time and Pause. 349 

§ 21 7« Grave, serious and moderate sentiments require 
moderate time. 

The delivery of such sentiments should not be very 
slow, nor yet too rapid — both extremes are to be 
carefully avoided. For if the movement be too ra- 
pid, it will be out of keeping with the sentiments, 
which, therefore, will fail to affect the minds of the 
audience in the proper manner ; and if it be too 
slow, the audience will be constantly running ahead 
of the speaker, and will soon cease to give their at- 
tention. Nothing, in fact, can be more fatal to power 
in delivery than for the speaker to allow his audience 
to keep ahead of him. This, however, is partly a 
rhetorical, as well as an elocutionary fault. A delib- 
erate or moderate movement is required in the fol- 
lowing extract. 

The firmest works of man are gradually giving way ; the ivy 
clings to the mouldering tower, the brier hangs out from the shat- 
tered window, and the wall-flower springs from the disjointed 
stones. The founders of these perishable works have shared the 
same fate long ago. If we look back to the days of our ancestors, 
to the men as well as to the dwellings of former times, they become 
immediately associated in our imaginations, and only make the 
feelings of instability stronger and deeper than before. In the 
spacious domes which once held our fathers, the serpent hisses, 
and the wild bird screams. 



218. Sentiments of greater vivacity require a quicker 
movement. 

The following is an example. 

When over the hills like a gladsome bride, 
Morning walks forth in her beauty's pride, 



350 The Elements of Power. 

And leading a band of laughing hours, 
Brushes the dew from the nodding flowers, 
Oh ! cheerily then my voice is heard, 
Mingling with that of the soaring bird, 
Who flingeth abroad his matins loud, 
As he freshens his wing in the cold gray cloud. 

§ 219. Impassioned sentiments commonly require a rapid 
delivery. 

Almost all the passions, except those of grief, sor- 
row, pity, and the like, when in a high state of ex- 
citement, prompt to rapid motions, both of body 
and mind. A man, when thus highly excited, does 
not walk nor speak in a slow or stately manner , all 
his motions naturally correspond to the excited 
state of his nervous system, and of his mental facul- 
ties. The audience, moreover, naturally partake of 
the speaker's excitement ; consequently their minds 
act with greater rapidity than at other times. This 
is especially true and significant of the irascible pas- 
sions. Hence the expression of such impassioned 
sentiments requires a rapid movement ; which, how- 
ever, must be carefully guarded lest it become so 
rapid as to mar the articulation, and render the 
speaking unintelligible. For uncontrolled passion 
always tends to indistinctness of articulation. The 
following extract requires a rapid movement. 

Banished from Eome ? What's banished but set free 
From daily contact with the things I loathe ? 
Tried and convicted traitor ! Who says this ? 
Who'll prove it at his peril on my head ? 
Banished ? I thank you for't — it breaks my chain. 
I held some slack allegiance till this hour ; 
But now my sword's my own. — Smile on, my lords. 



Time and Pause. 351 

I scorn to count what feelings, withered hopes, 

Strong provocations, bitter, burning wrongs, 

I have within my heart's hot cells shut up. 

But here I stand and scoff you. Here I fling 

Hatred and full defiance in your face. 

Here I devote your Senate. I've had wrongs 

To stir a fever in the blood of age, 

And make the infant's sinews strong as steel. 



§ 220. The commencement of speeches, heads and para- 
graphs, require slower time than the subsequent parts. 

This is a rule of great importance, and one which is 
often violated with damaging effect. The following 
are some of the reasons upon which it is founded. 

1. Sloiv time is necessary to gain the attention of the 
audience. 

Of course, it is of the utmost importance to fix the 
attention of the audience at the beginning of the 
discourse ; but this can hardly be done, unless tim3 
be given them to master the full meaning of the 
opening words and sentences. 

2. New matter is presented. 

At the commencement of a speech, the matter pre- 
sented is altogether new and unfamiliar to the minds 
of the audience. Hence it is naturally more difficult 
for them to master it. It cannot be anticipated, 
nor comprehended in sequence from anything going 
before. Therefore it requires to be delivered more 
slowly than the subsequent parts. 

3. More general and abstract terms are commonly 
employed. 

The speaker properly aims at first to communi- 



352 The Elements oe Powee. 

cate to his audience some conception of his whole 
subject, and of the object which he aims to accom- 
plish, that they may be able to anticipate, in some 
degree, the line of argument, and general drift, of 
the discourse which is to follow. Hence the neces- 
sity of abstractions and generalizations. In order 
to master these, and to form adequate conceptions 
of what is to follow, the audience must have time 
given them to weigh every word. If the commence- 
ment of the speech be hurriedly delivered, the whole 
of it will probably be a mass of confusion to the 
audience. 

4. The mental .operations are naturally slower. 

At the commencement of a speech, the feelings of 
both speaker and audience are yet calm and placid ; 
consequently their minds naturally operate less 
promptly and rapidly than in the subsequent parts, 
when their emotions and passions are fully excited, 
and the whole mind is kindled into a glow by its 
own activity. Hence the speaker requires more 
time to express, and the audience to follow the 
thought. This is more especially the case with the 
speaker in extempore discourse ; and all delivery 
should be precisely as if the whole thought were 
originated and elaborated at the moment. 

5. All tJiese reasons apply, but with less force, to the 
commencement of heads and topics. 

All these reasons apply not only to speeches, but 
also to the general and subordinate heads, topics 
and paragraphs, only with diminishing force, in the 
order in which these divisions are here enumerated. 



Time and Pause. 353 

Hence the slowest time of all is required at the 
commencement of the speech ; less slow time, at the 
commencement of a general head; still less, at 
that of a subordinate head ; and still less, at that 
of a paragraph ; but all these beginnings should 
be delivered more slowly than the subsequent 
parts. 

§ 221. Pause in speech is a function of time. 

As inflection is a function of pitch (§ 189), so 
pause is a function of time. For it is obvious that 
the time given to the delivery of a discourse, or of 
any part of it, will be greater or less, and the move- 
ment more or less rapid, as the pauses, or intervals 
of silence, between its parts are longer or shorter. 
This, moreover, is a very important function. For 
these pauses are not only very numerous, inasmuch 
as they occur between all the parts of discourse 
(§ 148 — 3), except syllables, and thus occupy a con- 
siderable proportion of the time; but, also, very 
many of them are essential to clearness, and even to 
intelligibility, in the communication of thought, and 
to power in the expression of sentiment. 

222. The three functions of pause are the grammatical, the 
rhythmical, and the rhetorical. 

These are all distinct functions, or, as they may 
be called, different varieties of pause in speech; 
and they contribute in different ways to the result 
of power in delivery. The grammatical pauses are 



354 The Elements of Poweb. 

intended to symbolize the syntactical relations of 
words and clauses in sentences. The rhythmical 
pauses contribute a principal element of the rhythm 
of speech. The rhetorical pauses have two func- 
tions ; first, to symbolize the relations between the 
rhetorical divisions of the discourse ; and, secondly, 
to aid in giving a more powerful expression to the 
sentiments. 

§ 223. Grammatical pauses indicate the syntactical relation 
of words and clauses in sentences, and are of varying 
length according to the sentiments expressed. 

This rule covers the ground of the period (.) 
colon (:) semicolon (;) comma (,) and dash ( — ) in 
punctuation. But the speaker or reader must be 
on his guard against attempting to govern his pauses 
by these marks. The sense of the words, and the 
character of the sentiments, are his only reliable 
guides. For the punctuation marks the pauses, 
and the pauses indicate the syntactical relations, 
only in a very imperfect and defective manner. 

1. These signs and pauses symbolize only a more or 
less close relation. 

They indicate nothing of the character of that re- 
lation. Thus the period, the longest pause, indi- 
cates that a syntactical structure of words, or a sen- 
tence, is completed. The colon, the next in length, 
indicates the most remote separation which can 
occur between the different parts of a sentence. 
The semicolon marks a less wide separation, and 
the comma, the least of all that have signs ; whilst 



Time and Pause. 355 

the dash properly signifies that the particular syn- 
tactical structure with which the sentence began, is 
broken off, and that the sentence is to be completed 
with another which is inconsistent with it. It is 
used, however, for other purposes. 

2. All these pauses vary in length. 

The causes of their variations are the greater or 
less rapidity of the general movement, and the 
character of the sentiments expressed. Under the 
influence of these causes, a colon, or a semicolon, 
or even a comma, may represent a pause longer 
than a period ; whilst a dash may represent 'a pause 
of any length whatsoever. 

3. Pauses are constantly required that are not 
marked in punctuation. 

In good reading and speaking, these pauses are 
constantly occurring, where punctuation marks 
would be wholly out of place. 

The foregoing observations may serve to guard 
the reader or speaker against undue reliance upon 
punctuation, and to impress upon his mind the prin- 
ciple, that his true guides are the sense of the 
words, and the character of the sentiments to be ex- 
pressed. 

§ 2M, Rhythmical pauses, in connection with accent, produce 
the rhythm of speech. 

Rhythm is an element of beauty, consequently of 
power, both in poetry and prose. It depends upon 
the distribution of accented and unaccented syl- 
lables, and of brief pauses. It is, of course, most 



356 The Elements of Powek. 

conspicuous in poetry ; in which, the pauses upon 
which it depends, occur most frequently in or near 
the middle, and at the close of the lines or verses. 
But a searching analysis of good reading or recita- 
tion of poetry, will, disclose to the ear a great num- 
ber of minor prosodial or rhythmical pauses, which 
are essential to the perfection of the rhythm, but 
which cannot be subjected to any fixed or certain 
metrical laws. The rhythm of prose, both with re- 
spect to accent and pause, is essentially free, that 
is, not subject to any invariable rules ; it is gov- 
erned only by the sense and the sentiment to be ex- 
pressed. The following are examples from our 
greatest master both of poetical and prose rhythm. 

Haste thee, nymph, and bring with thee 

Jest and youthful jollity, 

Quips and cranks and wanton wiles, 

Nods and becks and wreathed smiles ; 

Such as hang on Hebe's cheek, 

And love to live in dimple sleek ; 

Sport, that wrinkled care derides, 

And Laughter, holding both his sides. 

Come, and trip it as you go, 

On the light, fantastic toe ; 

And in thy right hand lead with thee 

The mountain nymph, sweet Liberty. 

For I am about to discourse of matters neither inconsiderable 
nor common ; but how a most potent king, after he had trampled 
upon the laws of the nation, and given a shock to its religion, and 
begun to rule at his own will and pleasure, was at last subdued in 
the field by his own subjects, who had undergone a long slavery 
under him ; how, afterwards, he was cast into prison ; and when 
he gave no ground, either by words or actions, to hope better 
things of him, he was finally, by the supreme council of the king- 
dom, condemned to die, and beheaded before the very gates of 
the royal palace. 



Time and Pause. 357 



§ 225. Rhetorical pauses indicate the relations between the 
rhetorical divisions of the discourse, aud aid in the ex- 
pression of the sentiments. 

These two functions, or varieties of the rhetorical 
pause, are quite distinct, in so far, at least, as the 
former symbolize relations of thought, and the lat- 
ter are expressive of emotion and passion. Both, 
however, are of very great importance, as contribut- 
ing in different ways to the result of power in 
delivery. 

§ 226. General heads of discourse require longer pauses be- 
tween them than subordinate ones; subordinate heads, 
longer than paragraphs, and paragraphs than sentences. 

All the primary and subordinate divisions of every 
discourse, require to be delivered with pauses be- 
tween them ; and these pauses vary in length ac- 
cording as the general movement is more or less 
rapid, and as the parts are more or less closely con- 
nected with each other. Their importance arises 
from the fact that they signify to the audience, ac- 
cording to their different lengths, that one general 
or subordinate head, or one paragraph, or sentence, 
is concluded, and another about to be commenced. 
Thus they impart discreteness and clearness to the 
speaking ; and enable the audience to comprehend 
and follow the drift and progress of the discourse. 
Hence they constitute an essential element of intel- 
ligibility. Where they are neglected, and the several 
divisions of the discourse are hurriedly run into each 
other, the speaking fails in clearness and intelligi- 



358 The Elements of Power. 

bility, and makes the impression upon the audience 
of a crude and confused mass, instead of an organ- 
ized body of thought. The effect is similar to that 
produced upon the mind of the reader by a discourse 
written or printed without primary, coordinate, or 
subordinate parts, and without paragraphs or sen-, 
tences. 

§ 227. The rhetorical pause is expressive of overwhelming 
emotion. 

This pause is in place when efther the emotions of 
the speaker have become uncontrollable, or those of 
the audience have been worked up to a very h igh degree 
of excitement. The attempt to introduce it without 
either of these conditions, must result incomplete fail- 
ure, and call forth only ridicule. But when rightly 
timed, it is one of the highest forms of elocutionary 
art. Accompanied with the appropriate expressions 
of gesture and countenance, its effects are sometimes 
prodigious. Whitefield was accustomed to resort to 
it. The awful silence of the thousands who hung upon 
his oratory, whose very breathing seemed suspended, 
produced impressions which could never be forgotten, 
and which were vividly remembered long after the 
thoughts of his discourses had faded from the mind. 
The expressive power of this pause is due, first, to 
the excited state of the feelings, which only can jus- 
tify it ; secondly, to the fact that it gives full scope 
to the activity of the imagination, which it stimu- 
lates to run far beyond anything that can be ex- 
pressed in words. In this latter respect, it is analo- 



Time and Pause. 359 

gous to that stroke of high art employed by the an- 
cient painter, who, in order to represent the over- 
whelming grief and despair of Agamemnon at the 
sacrifice of his daughter Iphigenia, at Aulis, por- 
trayed him with a veil over his face, that the imagin- 
ation might be left to conceive of what no art could 
depict. 

Such a pause was intended by Shakspeare after 
the following words of Anthony ; although it may 
be doubted whether Shakspeare himself has not 
erred in giving it so formal an announcement. 

My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar, 
And I must pause till it come back to me. 



CHAPTEE X. 

FORCE. 

1 228. Force in elocution is the application of strength of 
voice in diiferent degrees, chiefly for purposes of ex- 
pression. 

We have already treated of strength as one of 
the powers of the voice (§§176-179). We come 
now to treat of the application of this power in the 
expression of thought and feeling. The procedure 
here is analogous to the application of the other 
powers of the voice, compass and flexibility, which 
has been made under the head of pitch and inflec- 
tion (■§§ 188-213). We have seen also how force 
enters as an element of accent (§ 127) ; and we shall 
see hereafter how it constitutes an element of em- 
phasis. 

With respect to the application of force, there are 
two general rules to be observed. 

§ 229. The first general rule is that in the rhetorical divisions 
of a speeeh, force varies as the time. 

The parts of a speech which require to be rapidly 
delivered, commonly require also the greater de- 
grees, and those which require to be more slowly 
delivered, the less degrees of force. Accordingly 
the beginnings of speeches, heads and paragraphs 
should be delivered with less force than the subse- 
quent parts. A distinction is also to be observed 



Force. 361 

between these parts. For the commencement of a 
speech should be delivered, as nearly as the size of 
the audience will allow, with no more loudness of 
voice than that which belongs to ordinary conversa- 
tion. The speaker should always aim to make the 
conversational tones his point of departure. A 
greater degree of force is allowable in commencing 
the general heads ; but it should be sensibly less 
than that which is given to the delivery of what fol- 
lows under these heads. And still greater force 
may be given to the commencement of subordinate 
divisions and paragraphs, provided the speaker he 
able to increase it yet further as the sentiment rises. 
These variations are absolutely essential to the ad- 
equate expression of the distinctions and transitions 
of thought. If they be neglected, the audience will 
not be duly informed when one thought is ended 
and another commenced, nor of the relations of the 
different thoughts to each other. 

§ 230. The second general rule is that in the expression of 
sentiment, force varies as pitch and inflection. 

Those sentiments which require the higher ranges 
of pitch, and the greater inflections, require also for 
their adequate expression, the greater degrees of 
force or loudness of sound. Thus strong emotions 
of anger, grief, scorn, joy, hope, fear, and the like, 
commonly express themselves in loud sounds. Some- 
times, however, the force of the feeling may. choke 
the voice ; at other times, the most intense passion, 
under the control of a strong will, expresses itself in 
low tones, and with the utmost deliberation and 



362 The Elements of Power. 

quietness. On the other hand, those sentiments 
which require the lower ranges of pitch, and less 
extended inflections, commonly require also less 
stress of voice. Thus calm or subdued emotions of 
grief, sorrow, pity, love, hope, joy, and the like, ex- 
press themselves in soft or subdued tones ; whilst 
animated expressions of certainty, positiveness and 
determination, range through louder sounds. 

The relation of force to the expression of senti- 
ment, is touched by Dr. Rush as follows. 

" Secrecy muffles the voice against discovery ; 
and doubt, whilst it leans towards a positive declar- 
ation, cunningly prepares the subterfuge of an un- 
dertone, that the impression of its possible error 
may be least exciting and durable. Certainty, on 
the other hand, in the full desire to be heard dis- 
tinctly, assumes all the impressiveness of strength. 
Anger, in like manner, uses force of voice, because 
its charges and denials are made with a wide appeal, 
and in the sincerity of passion ; and .... the same 
mode is employed in uttering those feelings which 
are blended with anger, such as hate, ferocity and 
revenge. All those sentiments which are unbecom- 
ing or disgraceful, smother the voice to its softer 
degrees, in the desire to conceal even the voluntary 
utterance of them. Joy is loud in calling for com- 
panionship, through the overflowing charity of its 
satisfaction. Bodily pain, fear and terror are also 
strong in their expression ; with the double inten- 
tion of summoning relief, and repelling the offending 
cause, when it is a sentient being. For the sharp- 
ness and vehemence of the full-strained cry, are uni- 
versally painful or appalling to the animal ear." 



Force. 363 

§ 231. The different kinds of stress of voice express differ- 
ent classes of sentiments and emotions. 

There are several varieties of force or stress of 
voice, which are distinguishable from each other by 
their falling respectively upon different parts of the 
sound, and which are expressive of different varie- 
ties of sentiments and emotions. 

1. T/ie radical stress falls on tJie beginning of tJie 
sound, and is appropriate to the expression of lively 
and startling sentiments, and strong passions. 

This mode of stress consists in an abrupt or ex- 
plosive utterance of the voice on the initial part of 
the sound, the latter part being allowed gradually 
to die away. It is exemplified in the pronunciation 
of the words, go away ! as expressive of strong aver- 
sion ; in which the sounds of o in go, and ay in way, 
commence with explosive force, and decline in loud- 
ness until they cease. It is much used in the ex- 
pression of unrestrained and lively passions and 
emotions, in startling thoughts, and in animated, 
earnest and stirring sentiments ; as, also, in confi- 
dent and earnest argumentative discourse. Too 
much of it indicates too much self-confidence. The 
want of it denotes the absence of sharp and vigor- 
ous thought. It has been called " the salt and relish 
of oral communication, inasmuch as it preserves its 
pungency, or penetrating effect." It is properly 
heard in almost every word of the following ex- 
ample. 

He woke to hear bis sentry shriek, 

To arms! they come ! the Greek ! the Greek I 



364: The Elements of Power. 

He woke to die midst flame and smoke, 
And shout and groan and sabre stroke, 
And death shots falling thick and fast 
As lightnings from the mountain cloud ; 
And heard, with voice as thunder loud, 
Bozzaris cheer his band : 
"Strike, till the last armed foe expires ; 
•'Strike, for your altars and your fires ; 
" God, and your native land." 

2. The median stress swells out on the middle of the 
sound, and is appropriate to the expression of grave, 
solemn, sad and elevated sentiments; also, of sublimity, 
admiration, authority, and the like. 

This mode of stress, as defined above, gives a 
swell to the middle of the sound, as in the common 
pronunciation of the word, grave. It has nothing in 
it of an abrupt or explosive character. It is adapt- 
ed to the expression of grave, elevated, sublime, sad 
and solemn sentiments; of admiration, pure and 
serene joy, and of unquestioned authority and 
power. It is peculiarly expressive in the melody of 
such poetry as is not characterized by intense pas- 
sion ; and, also, in the reading of the less impas- 
sioned portions of Scripture. The following are ex- 
amples. 

Hail, holy light ! Offspring of Heaven first-born, 

Or of the eternal, co-eternal beam, 

May I express thee unblamed ? since God is light ; 

And never but in unapproached light 

Dwelt from eternity ; dwelt then in thee, 

Bright effluence of bright essence increate. 

Then said Jesus unto his disciples. If any man will come after 
me, let him deny himself, and take up his cross, and follow me. 
For whosoever will save his life, shall lose it ; and whosoever will 



Force. 365 

lose his life for my sake, shall find it. For what is a man pro- 
fited, if he shall gain the whole world, and lose his own soul ? Or 
what shall a man give in exchange for his soul ? 

3. The vanishing stress falls on the last part of the 
sound , and is expressive, for the most part, of violent 
and evil passions. 

This mode of stress makes the sound loudest at or 
near its close, as in the expression, I won't, uttered 
in passion. It is mostly expressive of the evil pas- 
sions, or those which are evil by excess, such as im- 
patience, contempt, scorn, obstinacy, malignity, an- 
ger, wrath, malice, and all uncharitableness. It is 
not, however, limited to these, but is often required 
by the utmost violence of other passions. The fol- 
lowing is an example. 

Now bind my brows with iron ; and approach 
The raggedest hour that time and spite dare bring, 
To frown upon the enraged Northumberland. 
Let heaven kiss earth ; now let not nature's hand 
Keep the wild flood confined ; let order die ; 
And let this world no longer be a stage 
To feed contention in a lingering act ; 
But let one spirit of the first-born Cain, 
Reign in all bosoms ; that, each heart being set 
On bloody courses, the rude scene may end, 
And darkness be the burier of the dead. 

4. Thorough stress falls upon the whole sound, and 
is expressive of deep and lofty, and, for tJw most part, 
of joyful emotions. 

In this mode of stress, the whole sound is filled 
out, so to speak, and sustained, as in the word, friend, 
pronounced with deep emotion. It is appropriate 
to the expression of great joy, rapture, triumph, ex- 
ultation, patriotism, and the like. It may be em- 



3G6 The Elements of Power. 

ployed also with good effect in the expression of 
lofty indignation and disdain. 

These are thy glorious works, Parent of good, 

Almighty ; thine this universal frame, 

Thus wondrous fair ; thyself how wondrous then ! 

Unspeakable, who sitst above the heavens, 

To us invisible, or dimly seen 

In these thy lowest works ; yet these declare 

Thy goodness beyond thought, and power divine. 



§ 232, The most common faults, in respect of force, are too 
much and too little, and the indiscriminate use of it. 

All of these faults are very common, and any one 
of them is fatal to genuine power in delivery. 

1. In general, the speaking should he only loud enough 
to he distinctly and easily heard. 

Whenever the speaker goes beyond this, he should 
be very sure that increased force is necessary to the 
adequate expression of the sentiment. For speak- 
ing too loud throughout the body of the discourse, 
is often due to " a plentiful lack " of ideas. Speak- 
ers who are deficient in this respect, unconsciously 
try to compensate for their want by an increase of 
noise, mere "sound and fury, signifying nothing." 
But rant is a poor substitute for thought. It is, 
moreover, a vulgar fault, most common with speak- 
ers who are destitute of culture and refinement. 

2. Speaking which is not loud enough, fails in ex- 
pression, and distresses tlie audience. 

This fault is, of course, frequently due to feeble- 
ness of voice, the remedy for which must be sought 
in vocal culture (§ 179). But this is not the only 



Force. 367 

cause ; for it is not at all uncommon in men who 
have voice enough, but who seem to think it is ill- 
bred to speak loud, even where the sentiment most 
requires it. Such " playing proper " is utterly incon- 
sistent with true oratory. For when the speaking is 
not loud enough to be distinctly and easily heard 
by the whole audience, much of what is said is lost 
to a portion of them, and all are distressed by their 
oral efforts, so that they soon cease to give their at- 
tention. The feebleness of sound also expresses 
feebleness of thought. Consequently, when the 
thought is good in itself, it is inadequately expressed, 
and fails of its proper effect, whilst those sentiments 
which require peculiar energy in the delivery, are 
simply caricatured. 

3. The indiscriminate employment of force is the op- 
posite of true expression. 

Not unfrequently stress of voice is inappropriately 
distributed. The speaker seems to feel that some 
parts of his discourse ought to be delivered in loud, 
and others in soft tones ; but he fails to increase 
and dimmish the sound in the proper places. Sen- 
timents which require the greatest, he delivers with 
the least force ; and words which require only to be 
heard and understood, he bellows out, as if he were 
crying, Fire ! Fire ! The delivery thus becomes the 
opposite of true expression. Frequently also this in- 
discriminate use of force takes place on correspond- 
ing parts of the same sentence ; which results in a 
painful monotony of increasing and diminishing 
sounds. 



CHAPTEE XL 



EMPHASIS. 



§ 233. Emphasis is the giving of relative vocal prominence to 
particular words or phrases for purposes of expression. 

The word is pure Greek, derived from the verb 
emphaino, to show, which, in its rhetorical applica- 
tions, signifies to express in a vivid, or forcible man- 
ner. Hence expression is the characteristic func- 
tion of emphasis, by which in part it is distin- 
guished from accent, which, exceptional cases 
(§ 130 — 2) apart, has little to do with expression. 
It is further distinguished from accent in that it 
gives prominence to whole words and phrases, 
whilst accent affects only particular syllables. Yet 
it is to be borne in mind that emphasis itself falls 
chiefly, though not exclusively, on the accented syl- 
lables, except in the case of monosyllabic words, 
which commonly take no accent (§ 133). 

All emphasis is relative ; that is to say, the degree 
of prominence which is to be given to words or 
phrases, is to be determined by the connection in 
which they stand, and by the occasion or circum- 
stances of the delivery. Where the whole passage 
is of a more or less emphatic character, the em- 



Emphasis. 369 

phatic words require greater or less prominence. 
The highly wrought emphasis of impassioned ora- 
tory, would be wholly out of place in a parlor read- 
ing of the same speech ; and in large audiences, a 
much stronger emphasis is in place, than in small. 
Propriety requires this relative character of empha- 
sis to be carefully observed. 



§ 234. The principal elements of emphasis are force and 
quality of voice, time, pitch and inflection. 

Ajiv two or more, and, indeed, all of these elements 
may be combined in the emphasis of a single word ; 
in fact, the requisite prominence and significance can 
seldom be given to an emphatic word by any one of 
them. When used in combination, however, it will 
commonly be found that some one of them predomi- 
nates over the others, and gives a distinctive char- 
acter to the emphasis. It is of great importance to 
recognize and master all these elements of this 
mode of expression, because many speakers seem to 
think that there is no other way of emphasizing a 
word than by increased stress of voice. They sim- 
ply pronounce every emphatic word louder than the 
others, with little or no other variation ; the result 
of which is a tame and heavy thump, thump, in 
their delivery, which soon ceases to have any of the 
effect of emphasis, or expression, and becomes insuf- 
ferably monotonous and wearisome to the audience. 



370 The Elements oe Power. 



§ 235. The emphasis of stress gives prominence to the word 
or phrase by increasing the loudness of the sound. 

This is the most obvious and easy way of empha- 
sizing, and therefore the most common, even where 
it is altogether inappropriate. Hence it is necessary 
to guard against the too frequent use of it. The 
increase of force, in this kind of emphasis, may be 
any one of the various modes of radical, median, 
vanishing, or thorough stress; the different senti- 
ments appropriate to each of which have been given 
in § 231. When judiciously employed, especially 
with due reference to these several modes, this form 
of emphasis is very significant and expressive. 

§ 236. The emphasis of quality distinguishes the word or 
phrase by some peculiar quality of voice. 

The qualities of voice, their importance in ex- 
pression, and the means of acquiring the com- 
mand of them, have been treated of in §§ 167—174. 
There are several of these qualities, however, which 
are specially available for expression by emphasis, 
and which admit of being used separately, or in 
combination with each other; such as the follow- 
ing. 

1. The guttural emphasis is mostly expressive of the 
evil passions, repressed for the moment by a strong effort 
of will. 

This quality of voice depends essentially upon 
pitch, inasmuch as it is produced by the fewest i 
vibrations of the vocal chords, and the resonance 



Emphasis. 371 

takes place deep in the guttur or windpipe, whilst 
this organ is contracted so as to interrupt the even 
flow of the sound, and render it impure. It is ex- 
emplified in the angry growl or snarl of a dog. It 
is expressive of pent-up or smothered rage, con- 
tempt, loathing, and similar feelings ; but, especially, 
of a deep, vindictive determination to wreak the 
malignant feeling upon its object at some future 
time, since the present does not afford the desired 
opportunity. "The deep, laboring, guttural enun- 
ciation seems to suggest a smothered, pent-up, but 
heaving emotion, just ready to burst out, without 
restraint or control ;" as in the following example. 

Desdemona. Alas ! what ignorant sin have I committed ? 

Othello. Was this fair paper, this most goodly book, 

Made to write whore upon? What committed? 
Committed I O thou public commoner ! 
I should make very forges of thy cheeks, 
That would to cinders burn up modesty, 
Did I but speak thy deeds. Wliat committed ! 
Heaven stops the nose at it, and the moon winks. 
The bawdy wind that kisses all it meets, 
Is hushed within the hollow mine of earth, 
And will not hear it. Wliat committed 1 
Impudent strumpet ! 

2. The aspirated emphasis is expressive of fear, ter- 
ror, horror, amazement, and of intense earnestness. 

This quality of voice is produced by the violent 
expulsion of a greater quantity of breath than can be 
vocalized, seeming to overpower and confuse the 
delicate vocalizing organs. Hence it requires a 
strong action of the organs which expel the breath. 
The whisper, without emphasis, is expressive of 



372 The Elements of Power. 

secrecy or concealment; but the emphatic use of 
the aspirated quality of voice, expresses great vio- 
lence of the passions. It is also significant of 
intense earnestness, from the fact that it intensifies 
the action of the articulating organs, in order to 
compensate for the want of the oral qualities of 
pure tone. This form of emphasis is frequent in 
the following example. 

Have mercy, Jesu I — Soft, I did but dream. 
O coward conscience, how dost thou afflict me ! 
The lights burn blue — It is now dead midnight. 
Cold, fearful drops stand on my trembling flesh. . . . 
My conscience hath a thousand several tongues ; 
And every tongue brings in a several tale ; 
And every tale condemns me for a villain. 
Perjury, perjury, in the high'st degree, 
Murder, stern murder, in the dir'si degree, 
Throng to the bar, crying all, G-uilty ! guilty ! .... 
Methought the souls of all that I had murdered, 
Came to my tent ; and every one did threat 
To-morrow's vengeance on the head of Richard. 

3. The emphasis of tremor expresses pity, grief y sor- 
row, desire, hope, joy, and kindred emotions. 

This quality is produced by alternately, in rapid 
succession, withholding and expelling the sound. It 
is easily acquired, and sometimes becomes habitual, 
so that almost every emphasis is given with a 
tremor ; which is a great fault, being significant of a 
want of force, and command over the organs. It is 
often heard in prayer. When properly introduced, 
which should be sparingly, this mode of emphasis 
is very expressive. It may be employed with good 
effect on the italicized words in the following pas- 



Emphasis. 373 

Farewell, a long farewell to all my greatness. 
1 his is the state of man : to-day lie puts forth 
The tender leaves of hope ; to-morrow blossoms, 
And bears his blushing, honors thick upon him ; 
The third day comes a frost, a killing frost : 
And when he thinks, good easy man, full surely 
His greatness is a ripening, nips his root ; 
And then he falls as I do. 



§ 237. The temporal emphasis distinguishes the word or 
phrase either by prolonging the sound, or by a pause be- 
fore or after it. 

There are thus two modes of this emphasis, the 
former of which may be characterized as the tem- 
poral emphasis proper, and the latter, as the emphatic 
pause. These require to be treated separately, for 
this reason among others, that the latter is appro- 
priate to a much wider class of sentiments than the 
former. 

1. TJie temporal emphasis prdper, dwells on the 
sound, and is appropriate to those sentiments which re- 
quire slow or moderate time (§§ 215 — 217). 

This mode of emphasis is, as it were, the ground 
or condition of several others ; for the emphasis of 
stress, quality and inflection, all require an increase 
of time in order to their full effect. This increase 
falls, of course, on those elements of the sound 
which are capable of indefinite prolongation ; that 
is, upon the tonics and subtonics, except, in this lat- 
ter class, the subnasals (§ 111). The fullest form of 
this mode of emphasis, is appropriate to the expres- 
sion of elevated, sublime, solemn and sorrowful 
sentiments ; in a less full form, to such as are of a 






374 The Elements of Power. 

grave, serious and moderate character. It is a very 
common and a very damaging fault, to load the 
delivery with this mode of emphasis, which renders 
it drawling and heavy, and awakens disgust in the 
audience. The increase of time on some of the 
emphatic words of the following sonnet, will rea- 
dily be perceived. 

When I consider how my light is spent 
Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide ; 
And that one talent, which is death to hide, 
Lodg'd in me useless, though my soul more bent 
To serve therewith my Maker, and present 
My true account, lest he returning chide — 
Doth God expect day-labor, light denied ? 
I fondly ask : but Patience, to prevent 
That murmur, soon replies, God doth not need 
Either mans work, or his own gifts ; who best 
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best ; his state 
Is kingly ; thousands at his bidding speed, 
And post o'er land and ocean without rest ; 
They also serve who only stand and wait. 

2. The emphatic pause is appropriate to almost all 
hinds of sentiments, and may be introduced either be- 
fore or after the emphatic word or phrase. 

This form of emphasis differs from the rhetorical 
pause (§ 227), inasmuch as that is expressive of over- 
whelming emotion, and has reference to the senti- 
ment of the whole passage ; whilst this is intended 
to give effect to some particular word or phrase, and 
is appropriate to all kinds and degrees of feeling. 
It frequently occurs where both syntax and prosody 
would seem to forbid it. In fact, it overrules the 
connections of syntax (and equally the rules of 
prosody) to such a degree that it is often required 



Emphasis. 375 

between words in the closest regimen ; as between 
the verb and its subject and object, the noun and its 
adjective, the adverb and that which it qualifies. 
In the following examples, the emphatic pause is 
marked with a dash. 

Ye know too well 
The story of our thraldom ; we axe— slaves. 
The bright sun rises to his course, and lights — 
A race of slaves ; he sets, and his last beam 
Falls — on a slave . 

He said, then full before their sight 
Produced the beast, and lo ! twas white. 

Henceforth I call you not servants, for the servant knoweth not 
what his lord doeth ; but I have called you— —friends ;. for all 
things that I have heard of my father, I have made known unto 
you. 

" Traitor /" —I go — but I return. This trials 
Here I devote — your senate. . . . 

Look to your hearths, my lords; 
For there henceforth shall sit, for household gods, 
Shapes — hot from Tartarus. 



§ 238. The emphasis of pitch distinguishes the word or 
phrase either by a discrete or a concrete change of pitch. 

Here again are two very different modes of em- 
phasis, yet both depending upon changes of pitch. 
1 These are properly characterized by Prof. Bay, ac- 
cording as the change of pitch is either a skip or a 
slide (§ 189), as discrete and concrete emphasis. In 
both, it is to be observed, only the greater changes 
can be made available for effective emphasis ; and 
the strength of the emphasis varies as these changes 



376 The Elements of Power. 

are greater or less ; that is, the fifth is stronger than 
the third, and the octave than the fifth. 

1. The discrete emphasis, according as the slap is 
upwards or downwards, is appropriate to the sentiments 
which require a high, or a low pitch. 

The emphasis of the upward skip is mostly appro- 
priate to light, gay, ironical and scornful senti- 
ments; also, to doubt, uncertainty, hesitation and 
surprise ; and often it is expressive of violent pas- 
sion, and intense anguish. That of the downward 
skip is more appropriate to grave, solemn and indig- 
nant sentiments ; also, to fixedness of purpose, or 
settled determination; and sometimes to violent, 
but restrained passion. Both of these modes, how- 
ever, not unfrequently occur in the same sentence, 
especially where one branch is opposed to, or con- 
trasted with the other. In the following example, 
some of the upward skips are marked in italics, the 
downward, in small capitals; but their different 
degrees are not marked. 

Brutus. If there be any in this assembly — any dear friend of 
Cesar's -to him I say, that Brutus' love to Cesar was no less than 
his. If then 'that friend demand, why Brutus rose against Cesar, 
this is my answer : Not that I loved Cesar less, but that I loved 
Rome mobe. Had you rather Cesar were living, and die all 
slaves ; or that Cesar were dead, and live all freemen ? As Cesar 
loved me, I weep for him ; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it ; as 
he was valiant, I honor him; but as he was ambitious, I slew him. 
There is tears for his love, joy for his fortune, honor for his valor, 
and death for his ambition. Who is here so base that would be 
a bondman? If any, speak; for him have I offended. Who is 
here so rude that would not be a Roman ? If any, speak ; for him 
have I offended. Who is here so vile that would not love his 



Emphasis. 377 

country? IS any, speak; for him have I offended. I pause for a 
reply. . . . 

Citizen. None, Brutus, none. 

Brutus. Then none have I offended. I have done no more to 
Cesar than you shall do to Brutus. . . . With this I depart; that 
as I slew my best lover for the good of Rome, I have the same 
dagger for myself, when it shall please my country to need my 
death. 

2. The concrete emphasis is expressive of various 
sentiments, as determined in §§ 201—211. 

The various powers of expression which belong 
to the upward and downward inflections, have been 
sufficiently explained in the sections referred to 
above ; in which, we have seen also that the princi- 
pal of these inflections always fall on the emphatic 
words. Here then a single example must suffice ; 
as before, the upward slides being marked in italics, 
and the downward, in small capitals. 

Brutus. Let me tell you, Cassius, you yourself 

Are much condemned to have an itching palm, 
To sell and mart your offices for gold 
To undeservers. 

Cassius. I an itching palm ? 

You know that you are Brutus that speak this,. 
Or, by the gods, this speech were else you last. 

Brutus. The name of Cassius honors this corruption, 

And chastisement doth therefore hide his head. 

Cassius. Chastisement ? 

Brutus. Bemember March, the ides of Makch remember. 
Did not great Julius bleed for justice sake ? 
"What villain touched his body, that did stab, 
And not for justice ? What I shall one of us, 
That struck the foremost man of all this world, 
But for supporting robbers — shall ice now 
Contaminate our fingers with base bribes, 
And sell the mighty space of our large honors 
For so much trash as may be grasped thus ? 



378 The Elements of Power. 

I had rather be a dog, and bay the moon, 

Than such a Roman. . . . 
Cassius. Urge me no more ; I shall forget myself. 

Have mind upon your health; tempt me no further. 
Brutus. Away! slight man! 
Cassius. Is't possible ? 
Brutus. Hear me, for I will speak. 

Must I give way and room to your rash choler ? 

Shall J be frightened when a madman stares? 
Cassius. O ye gods ! ye gods ! must I endure all this ? 
Brutus. All this ? Ay, more . Fret till your proud heart break. 

Go show your slaves how choleric you are, 

And make your bondmen tremble. Must I budge ? 

Must I observe you ? Must I stand and crouch 

Under your testy humor ? By the gods, 

Yon shall digest the venom of your spleen, 

Though it do split you. 



§ 239. The distribution of the emphasis is governed by the 
meaning to be expressed, whether emotion or thought. 

The right distribution of the emphasis is essential, 
both to render the thought intelligible, and to ex- 
press the emotion or passion which the thought is 
intended or adapted to excite. Emphasis, in fact, 
is a substantive element of language itself, since by 
varying it the meaning of any combination of words 
may be wholly changed ; whilst a wrong emphasis, 
not only fails of expression, but also caricatures or 
travesties the sense. The following, with a strong 
emphasis on the word, him, is an example of such 
travesty. 

And he said to his sons, Saddle me the ass; so they saddled 
him. 

Here the emphasis places the saddle upon the 
prophet, instead of upon the ass. 



Emphasis. 379 

Again : let the following question be repeated 
often enough to place the emphasis on every word 
successively, and in each case, it expresses a differ- 
ent sense. 

Do you ride to town to-day? 
Do you ride to town to-day ? 
Do you ride to town to-day ? 
Do you ride to town to-day ? 
Do you ride to town to-day ? 

The regimen of the emphasis varies somewhat 
according as it is expressive of emotion, or of the 
relations of thought, but only the most general rules 
are available here ; and these rules constantly affect 
and modify each other. The only way a speaker 
can be sure of his emphasis, is the perfect mastery 
of the thought in its grammatical and rhetorical rela- 
tions, and by the feeling of the emotions to be ex- 
pressed. 



§ 240. The emphasis of emotion falls on the word or phrase 
which is the most significant of emotion. 

"Under this rule, interjections, exclamations, abrupt 
and excited interrogations, and the like, require the 
emphasis. But the rule implies, of course, a careful 
study of the words to determine which of them are 
the most significant of emotion or passion. 

King Richard. Is thy name Tyrrel ? 

Tyrrel. James Tyrrel, and your most obedient subject. 

K. B. Art thou indeed ? 

Tyr. Prove me, my gracious lord. 

K R. bar' si thou resolve to kill a friend of mine ? 

Tyr. Please you, but I had rather kill two enemies. 



380 The Elements of Power. 

K. B. Why, then, thou hast it — two deep enemies ; 

Hbes to my rest, and my sweet sleep's disturbers, 
Are they that I would have thee deal upon. 

1. The significant words are often a whole clause; 
but every ivord in such a clause is not commonly to be 
emplwsized. 

Failure to observe this fact often occasions diffi- 
culty and mistakes in adjusting the emphasis. 
" Boswell tells us that Garrick and Johnson once 
disputed about the emphasis in the Ninth Com- 
mandment, Thou shalt not bear false witness against 
thy neighbor ; the one maintaining that it should fall 
upon shalt, the other, upon not Yet both of these 
great men were clearly wrong in this case ; for the 
true emphasis is certainly upon the whole clause, 
bear false witness against thy neighbor. 3 ' 

Through the whole line of their march, they did not see one man, 
not one woman, not one child, not one four-footed beast, of any de- 
scription whatever. 

2. When an empJiatic word or phrase is repeated 
for the purpose of giving it increased significance, it 

takes a repeated emphasis ; otherwise, not. 

This is an important rule, often violated with dam- 
aging effect. The following is an example of the 
former case. 

Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets, and 
stonest them that are sent unto thee, how often would I have 
gathered thy children together, as a hen doth gather her brood 
under her wings, and ye would not ! 

Again : 

Leaves have their time to fall, 

And Howers, to wither at the north wind s breath, 



Emphasis. 381 

And stars, to set ; but all— 

Thou hast all seasons for thine own, death. 

The following is an example of the latter ease. 

Jesus therefore. . . . said unto them, Whom seek ye? They an- 
swered him, Jesus of Nazareth. . . . Then asked he them again; 
Whom seek ye ? And they said, Jesus of Nazareth. 

3. Great care is required to guard against too fre- 
quent emphasis. 

When there are many words in a passage strongly 
significant of emotion Or passion, a temptation arises 
to load the delivery with emphasis. In snch cases, 
it must be borne in mind that too frequent empha- 
sis destroys its whole effect, because emphasis con- 
sists essentially in distinguishing the most signifi- 
cant words and phrases from the others with which 
they stand immediately connected. This tempta- 
tion is sure to be felt in such passionate words as 
the following. 

No, by the holy rood, thou know'st it well: 

Thou cams't on earth to make my earth a hell. 

A grievous burden was thy birth to me ; 

Techy and wayward was thy infancy ; 

Thy school days, frig htfxd, desperate, wild and furious; 

Thy prime of manhood, daring, bold and venturous ; 

Thy age, confirmed proud, subtle, sly and bloody, 

More mild, but yet more harmful, kind in hatred. 



§ 241. The emphasis of thought falls on the words and 
phrases that are most significant, either in themselves, or 
from some peculiar relation. 

The significance of words and phrases depends 
on an almost infinite number and variety of circum- 
stances ; so that those which are most significant, in 



382 The Elements of Power. 

any particular case, can be determined only by care- 
ful study of the passage. The following general 
principles, however, are to be observed. 

1. Words are to be emphasized which suggest more 
than tliey express. 

This rule includes the principal words in passages 
of irony ; as in Elijah's mockery of the prophets of 
Baal, already referred to. 

And it came to pass at noon, that Elijah mocked them, and said, 
Cry aloud, for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or 
he is in ajourney, or, peradventure, he sleepelh, and must be 
awaked. 

An admirable example of words that suggest 
more than they express, and thereby become em- 
phatic, is found in the word, committed, which is so 
often repeated in Othello's charges against Desde- 
mona, in § 236 — 1. The following is another. 

Casca. Indeed, they say, the senators to-morrow 

Mean to establish Cesar as a king ; 

And he shall wear his crown by sea and land, 

In every place, save here in Italy. 
Cassius. I know where I will wear this dagger then ; 

Cassius from bondage will deliver Cassius. 

2. Words in contrast or antithesis require to be em- 
phasized. 

These cases are very numerous and complicated, 
requiring close attention to determine them. 

Man never is, but always to be blest. 

He raised a mortal to the skies ; 
She drew an angel down. 

The young are slaves to novelty; the old, to custom; the middle- 
aged, to both ; the dead only, to neither. The pleasures of the im- 



Emphasis. 383 

agination are not so gross as those of sense, nor so refined as those of 
the understanding. 

3. Words in close grammatical regimen, with import- 
ant clauses intervening, require to be emphasized. 

This rule is one of considerable importance, in 
order to bring out, or make evident the true sense, 
or grammatical structure of sentences. 

Go, preach to the coward, thou death-telling seer; 
Or, if gory Culloden so dreadful appear, 
Draw, dotard, around thy old wavering sight, 
2 his mantle, to cover the phantoms of fright. 

4. Articles, connecting particles, auxiliaries, and the 
like, take the emphasis only when they have some spe- 
cial significance. 

He made not only a speech, but the speech of the occasion. 

I did not say man or woman, but man and woman. 

Not this man, but that man. 

He was going not to, but from his home. 



OHAPTEE XII. 

GESTURE. 

§ 242. Gesture includes all significant motions and actions of 
the human body. 

Under this comprehensive definition, we have all 
significant motions and actions of the trunk itself, 
and of all its members — the head and countenance, 
the hands and arms, and the feet. Motions which 
have no relation to significance, are not properly 
gestures ; but there are very few if any motions, 
which a speaker can make, which are not significant 
of something, or which do not aid or hinder him in 
the expression of his sentiments. In fact, it would 
be difficult to overestimate the expressive power 
of which gesture is capable ; and, consequently, the 
folly of those who despise or neglect this final and 
crowning element of power in delivery, cannot be 
too strongly condemned. 



§ 243. The language of symbols is more expressive than that 
of words. 

The following considerations may serve to illustrate 
and confirm this statement. 



Gesture. 385 

1. The expressiveness of figurative language depends 
upon its symbolical character. 

Just in the degree in which articulate language is 
enabled to draw upon the expressive power of sym- 
bols, that is, in the degree in which it becomes fig- 
urative or symbolical, does it become picturesque, 
vivid and expressive. -This is a well-known principle 
of style. Hence the wonderful power of our Lord's 
parables, of the imagery employed by the Hebrew 
prophets, and of all appropriate figurative represen- 
tations. This power is due to the fact that articu- 
late language is thus capable of laying hold upon, 
and of appropriating to itself, some small portion of 
the expressive power of the language of symbols. 

2. Religious ideas express themselves in symbols. 

All the great historical religions of mankind — that 
of the ancient Egyptians, Brachmanism, Buddism, 
fire-worship, the paganism of the Greeks and Romans, 
Druidism, the worship of Odin and Thor, Judaism, 
Mohammedism and Christianity, all alike, have stri- 
ven to set forth the profoundest mysteries of their 
faith and life, by means of symbolical representa- 
tions. None of them have ever been satisfied with 
mere words. The only rational account which can 
be given of this remarkable fact, is that the language 
of words is universally felt to be inadequate to the 
expression of those vast and profound ideas, and of 
those impassioned sentiments, which belong to the 
religious life of man. 

3. All profound ideas, and all impassioned sentiments, 
require symbolical expression. 



386 The Elements of Power. 

This is the fundamental principle from which ori- 
ginate all the symbols of art, which embody the 
ideas and sentiments of the beautiful in the minds of 
their authors, and of the people among whom they 
are produced. But this principle is not limited to 
religion and art. All profound ideas, and all im- 
passioned sentiments, but most of all, those which 
prevail extensively, and generally affect whole com- 
munities, can never rest satisfied until they find ex- 
pression in symbolical representation. This might 
be shown by innumerable examples, such as the 
following. 

(I."* The life and spirit of the ancient Romans was 
their unrivalled genius for war and conquest. The 
ideas which universally prevailed among these iron 
republicans, were that Rome was invincible ; that but 
one result was ever to be anticipated in all wars in 
which she might become involved; that in these 
conflicts, other nations must expect to be conquered. 
In order to express these ideas in the most striking 
and vivid manner possible, it was their custom to 
give audience to foreign ambassadors in the temple 
of Yictory. 

(2.) Again : in order to express these same ideas, 
in the still stronger form, that other nations were to 
the Romans as brute beasts, made to be subjugated, 
they sometimes erected upon the field of victory an 
immense wooden frame, in the form of a yoke for 
beasts of burden, under which they marched the 
remains of the conquered army, and then dismissed 
them to their homes. This was called passing 
under the yoke. What words, what bulletins of ex- 



Gesture. 387 

ultation, could have expressed these ideas with the 
life and power of this tremendous symbol. 



§ 244. Gesture is a principal element of the symbolical lan- 
guage of nature, and of the passions, which is universally 
understood. 

1. This language is wonderfully copious and signifi- 
cant. 

The immense copiousness and wonderful signifi- 
cance of this language of nature and of the passions, 
has been already alluded to in the treatment of 
feeling as one of the sources of power in delivery ; 
and this must have become still more evident from 
the preceding discussion of the several' elements of 
this language, consisting of all the variations of 
quality and stress of voice, articulation, pitch, inflec- 
tion, time, pause and emphasis. 

2. Gesture is a principal element of this symbolical 
language, and more expressive than words. 

Strong passion, or profound emotion, is never sat- 
isfied with any expression of itself that is possible in 
mere words ; it feels itself to be still pent up, until it 
finds an outlet by embodying itself in some appro- 
priate act or motion of the. body. Nay, even slight 
and transient feelings require action, in order to their 
full and adequate expression. Not only does the 
tempest raise up the great ocean waves ; the zephyr 
also ripples the smooth surface of the mountain 
lake. Hence nature has provided that certain ac- 
tions or motions shall correspond to certain feelings ; 
and that these feelings shall instinctively prompt to 



388 The Elements of Power. 

those actions. Such actions or motions are, in a 
peculiar sense, the language of nature for the ex- 
pression of such feelings. Here we have the whole 
theory of gesture, and the explanation of its won- 
derful power of expression. Hence it is that anger 
frowns, fear turns pale, shame blushes, pleasure 
smiles, love sparkles in the eyes, humility bows the 
head, and despair grins, gnashes the teeth, and tears 
the hair. No words can equal the expressive power 
of such symbolical acts — actions, here as every- 
where, speak louder than words. To the same effect, 
Quintilian teaches us that "gesture is commonly 
more expressive than the voice. For not only the 
hand, but even a nod is expressive of our sentiments. 
A common salute, before the person speaks a single 
word, gives us an intimation of his disposition ; and 
we discern by the face and the walk the workings 
of the mind. Nay, even the brutes, devoid Of speech, 
express anger, pleasure and love, in their eyes, and 

by certain movements of their bodies Painting 

itself, though motionless as well as silent, sometimes 
affects us more powerfully than words." 

3. This language is universally understood. 

Articulate speech has very much in it that is 
purely conventional. Some would even persuade us 
that it is, wholly such ; but this surely cannot be ad- 
mitted. Yet speech requires to be learned before it 
can be understood ; and our knowledge of the sense 
in which others use the words we hear, is never per- 
fect. It is even maintained, and not with mere 
show of argument, that we never understand one 
another precisely in the sense in which we speak. 



Gesture. 389 

But in this language of nature, as we have seen 
(§ 31), especially in this element of it which con- 
sists of gestures, there is something which no art 
can, or ought ever to undertake to teach, apart from 
the feelings by which it is prompted and inspired ; 
and all that art can do is to aid nature, when these 
feelings are in full activity, to express them with 
greater simplicity, fullness, freedom and power, 
than were otherwise possible. Here therefore no- 
thing requires to be learned before it can be under- 
stood. Every symbol has its own natural signifi- 
cance, which all understand instinctively at the same 
moment. Not a single person in the largest audi- 
ence, ever fails to understand the natural signifi- 
cance, or to feel the force of appropriate gesture. 
Who ever misunderstood a blush, or a frown, or the 
clenched fist, or the eyes and hands raised towards 
heaven? And when a whole audience is thus af- 
fected in the same way, at one and the same mo- 
ment, the effect is wonderfully intensified by all the 
mysterious workings of their sympathy with the 
speaker, and with each other (§§ 55 — 58). 



§ 245. By gesture the orator is enabled to express his sentiments 
to the eye, at the same time that by Ms words lie expresses 
them to the ear. 

The eye and the ear, beyond comparison, are the 
noblest of all the senses ; upon which, therefore, all 
the arts of expression depend. No attempt has ever 
been made to found such an art upon any of the 
senses of feeling, taste, or smell. But all these arts, 



390 The Elements of Power. 

except that of oratory, address themselves exclu- 
sively to one, or the other, of these two art-senses ; 
poetry and music, exclusively to the ear ; painting, 
sculpture, architecture, landscape gardening, danc- 
ing, and the art of ornamentation, to the eye alone. 
Hence all the effects which any of these arts can 
produce, must be wrought through a single sense. 
But oratory — with which the dramatic, or more 
properly the histrionic art is so closely identified, 
that for elocutionary purposes they can hardly be 
distinguished from each other — oratory alone ad- 
dresses itself equally, and at the same moment, both 
to the ear and the eye. Consequently its power of 
expression is incomparably greater than that of any 
other art. Hence in the words of an able, but anon- 
ymous author, " there is no earthly object capable of 
making such various, and such forcible impressions 
upon the human mind, as a consummate speaker." 
For as the concurrent testimony of two witnesses 
has not merely double, but many times greater force 
than that of one, so when a sentiment is addressed 
to both of these senses at the same time, it produces 
immeasurably greater effects upon the soul, than 
when it depends upon either of them alone. 



§ 246. The great significance of gesture is exemplified in the 
art of pantomime, and in the language of deaf mutes. 

We see from the preceding discussion, not only 
how much gesture aids in the expression of senti- 
ment, but also that it has a significance of its own, 
which is entirely independent of words. So great 



Gestuee. 391 

is its power of expression that it can be made to 
stand in the place, and perform the functions of ar- 
ticulate speech. The following are examples of this. 

1. The art of pantomime is capable of exciting a 
poiverful interest. 

In this species of dramatic entertainment, the 
whole story and action of the drama is represented 
in dumb show, that is, by gesture alone. These 
representations excited among the ancient Romans 
a deep and passionate interest ; such, indeed, that 
they have carefully handed down to us the names 
of their most accomplished and celebrated per- 
formers ; and such that serious riots sometimes oc- 
curred among the people, from the violence of their 
partisanship of rival actors. Now the bare fact 
that the spectators could be kept together for hours 
at a time, whilst not a word was spoken — much 
more, that these exhibitions were so popular, and 
excited such a deep interest, is abundant evidence 
that the art of expressing thought and sentiment by 
gesture alone, had been carried to a very high de- 
gree of perfection ; and that the performers were 
able, in this way, to tell the whole story, and to 
represent the whole action of their dramas, in a 
perfectly intelligible and very affecting manner. 

2. Decf mutes are able to communicate by signs alone. 
The great significance and power of expression of 

which gesture is capable, cannot perhaps be better 
illustrated than by the amazing facility and freedom 
with which the deaf and dumb communicate their 
ideas and sentiments. A very little familiarity with 



392 The Elements of Power. 

their signs, will enable any one to understand and 
to converse with them, on all ordinary topics and 
occasions. One of the most entertaining and in- 
structive companions the author ever had, was a 
deaf and dumb youth, of high literary culture, and 
the author of an original work on Greek and Ro- 
man mythology,* with whom he was formerly ac- 
customed to ramble, for many hours at a time, 
through the woods, and over the hills of the Schuyl- 
kill. The principal means of communication on 
these occasions, was this natural language of dumb 
signs. He well remembers also to have heard, or 
rather seen, the whole story of the monkey that 
snatched an infant from the arms of its mother, and ran 
with it up to the mast-head of a ship, together with 
the anguish of the mother, and the stratagem by 
which she regained possession of her child unhurt, 
told by a mute little girl twelve or thirteen years old, 
not only in a perfectly intelligible, but even in an ex- 
tremely affecting manner. In fact, a better school 
of gesture for public speakers, could not possibly be 
found, than an asylum for deaf mutes, and familiar 
intercourse with its inmates. 



§ 247. Gesture is expressive of passion and emotion rather 
than of thought. 

This is a general principle, and one of great im- 
portance in determining the character, place and fre- 
quency of the gestures which are required in public 
speaking. It teaches us to distinguish between the 

* A Catechism of Mythology. By Wm. Darlington. 



Gesture. 393 

orator, and the mimic or pantomime actor. For in 
oratory, we ought not to gesticulate as if we were 
limited to dumb signs ; we must remember that we 
have also words to express our thoughts ; and, 
thereby, guard ourselves against the temptation to 
redundant and inappropriate gesture. The orator 
should endeavor to express by his gestures his emo- 
tions rather than his thoughts or intellectual states. 
With due discretion, indeed, he may employ gesture 
for imitative purposes, and for the expression of his 
thoughts. He may point to the sun, or to a moun- 
tain, or river, when speaking of any of these objects, 
or he may touch his own forehead, or lay his finger 
on his lips, to express meditation or silence ; but he 
should avoid the frequent use of such imitative ges- 
tures, and too great particularity in them ; otherwise 
he will assuredly enfeeble his delivery. 

This principle, with the above, and still other 
practical consequences, rests upon the following- 
reasons. 

1. Emotion rather than thought is the immediate 
cause of gesture. 

Mere thought is naturally quiet and undemon- 
strative ; it does not of itself prompt to action of any 
kind ; and the more profound the thought, that is, 
the more a man becomes absorbed in purely intel- 
lectual operations, the more still and motionless 
does the body become. The incongruity of deliver- 
ing a demonstration in Euclid with abundant or 
violent gesture, would be apparent to every one. 
On the other hand, passion, or emotion, is essen- 



394 The Elements of Power. 

tially active and demonstrative ; it always prompts 
to action ; and the stronger it is, the more abundant 
and striking does the gesture become. It is not the 
mere thought or conception of a shameful, or of a 
sorrowful object, but it is the feeling of shame, or of 
sorrow, which causes the cheeks to blush, or the 
eyes to overflow with tears. Hence, also, the equal 
incongruity of the delivery of impassioned senti- 
ments with little or no corresponding gesture. 

2. Gesture corresponds to the nature of emotion, 
rather than to that of thought. 

There is ever a likeness to the cause in its effects ; 
hence there is a resemblance or correspondence be- 
tween gesture, and the emotion from which it 
springs. Such resemblance might be pointed out 
in many particulars ; but that one to which it seems 
most necessary to direct attention here, is the inde- 
finiteness of both gesture and emotion. For there 
is a definiteness or precision in the meaning of words, 
in which they correspond to the precision of thought, 
and of which gesture is altogether incapable. The 
dictionary will give us the definition of a word ; but 
it cannot give us the emotion which corresponds to 
it, and which it is intended to express, in any par- 
ticular connection. The emotions, especially in 
their ever-varying degrees of strength, are essentially 
incapable of such definition. They do not reflect 
themselves in distinct outlines upon the intellect ; 
they are the acts of the sensibilities of the soul. 
They also overlap, involve, or imply each other, in a 
very different manner from the intellectual opera- 
tions of the mind. The attempt to define precisely, 



Gesture. 395 

in character or degree, any particular emotion, 
whilst we are under its influence, would paralyze it. 
There is obviously a corresponding indefiniteness in 
gesture, which renders it better adapted to the ex- 
pression of emotion and passion, than it is to the 
expression of thought. Thus tears commonly ex- 
press sorrow, but they do not tell us, as words would 
do, whether that sorrow be for the death of a friend, 
or for the commission of a sin ; and the hand raised 
to heaven expresses recognition of the being and 
providence of God, but it does not tell us, whether 
in reverence and submission, or in distrust and fear. 



§ 248. Too much gesture, though significant and appropriate, 
enfeebles its power of expression ; otherwise, too much 
is better than too little. 

1. The speaker should be continent of significant ges- 
ture. 

When the gesture is highly significant and ex- 
pressive, a very little of it will go a great way ; and 
too much of* it enfeebles its expressive power, and 
is to be carefully avoided. It has an effect similar 
to that of too much emphasis (§§ 240 — 3). It 
comes so frequently that it does not allow time suf- 
ficient for the audience to feel its force. From its 
redundancy, it ceases to attract attention. A single 
gesture in a paragraph, provided it be one of strik- 
ing significance, will often produce a far greater 
effect than a dozen, in themselves equally expres- 
sive. Continence of significant gesture, like con- 
tinence of words, and of emphasis, is a great ele- 
ment of power in delivery. 



396 The Elements of Power. 

2. Too much of gesture, not specially significant, is 
better than too little. 

On the other hand, a speaker with little or no 
skill in the adaptation of gesture to the expression 
of particular emotions, need not be afraid of too 
much action. In young speakers, especially during 
the training period, it ought to be rather redundant 
than deficient; for it is much easier to prune it 
down than it is to call it forth, after the habit of 
speaking with too little has been formed. And, be- 
sides, motion as such, even when it has no particular 
significance, is expressive ; for it shows that the 
speaker is not without feeling of some sort. The 
want of it makes the impression that he is impas- 
sive and unmoved; it is necessarily the want of ani- 
mation or vivacity (§§ 82 — .3). He may do some- 
thing, it is true, to neutralize this impression by 
means of the vocal elements of the language of feel- 
ing ; but it is impossible to compensate by these 
for the want of gesture ; and all the elements of this 
language are so vitally connected with each other 
that they are well-nigh inseparable. Hence it is 
nearly impossible to speak with animation, whilst 
every part of the body is motionless except the 
vocal organs ; and nothing can be more incongruous 
than a motionless delivery of impassioned senti- 
ments. 



§ 249. The normal position of the body in speaking should he 
erect, facing the audience, the chest expanded, the head 
evenly balanced, the arms and hands hanging naturally 
at the sides, and the feet near together. 



Gestuee. 397 

This is the normal position of the body which is 
best for speaking, and to which it should naturally 
return after whatever deviations from it the gesture 
may require. The erect position is necessary to 
the full expansion of the chest ; and this, to the free 
play and full force and control of the diaphragm, 
breathing muscles, lungs and voice. The body 
should not lean back, which seems to say to the 
audience, I don't much care for you; its weight 
should rest rather upon the front part of the feet 
than upon the heels, just a little, perhaps, inclined 
forwards ; which expresses desire to gain the favor- 
able attention of the audience. There should be no 
leaning or lolling down upon anything for support, 
as if the speaker were too feeble, or too lazy, to sup- 
port himself; which also expresses disrespect for 
the audience. The front of the body should not be 
turned aside or averted from the audience, other- 
wise than .temporarily, in some gesture which may 
require such a movement. The head should not be 
thrown back, which expresses pride or contempt ; 
neither should it be held on one side or the other, 
which expresses conceited knowingness, or waggish- 
ness ; nor yet should it be allowed to hang down on 
the breast, which expresses sorrow, or distress, or 
shame ; — but it should stand evenly balanced upon 
the shoulders, ready to be moved in any way ac- 
cording to the varying sentiments. The hands 
should not be thrust into the pockets, nor under 
the coat-tails, nor clasped behind the back, nor held 
in front, with the fingers joined together at the ex- 
tremities, nor with the fists doubled; but they 



398 The Elements of Power. 

should hang open, though not expanded, at the 
sides, and not in front of the body. The feet 
should be kept near, but not too near together, so 
as to avoid everything like straddling. In this posi- 
tion, which, however, may be varied from time to 
time, the whole body, and all its members, will be 
found ready and apt for whatever gestures or move- 
ments the expression of the sentiments may re- 
quire. 

§ 250. The countenance has the greatest power of expression ; 
it should correspond to the sentiments embodied in the 
words. 

1. Tfie countenance speaks. 

The expressive power of the human countenance 
renders it capable of becoming one of the most im- 
portant elements of power in delivery. It is such, 
in fact, that we can say, a speaking countenance, 
almost as properly as, a speaking tongue. In the 
words of Quintilian, "this is the dominant power 
iu expression. With this we supplicate ; with this 
we threaten ; with this we soothe ; with this we 
mourn ; with this we rejoice ; with this we triumph ; 
with this we make our submissions : upon this the 
audience hang ; upon this they keep their eyes 
fixed ; this they examine and study, even before a 
word is spoken; this it is which excites in them 
favorable or unfavorable emotions ; from this they 
understand almost everything; often it becomes 
more significant than any words." 



Gesture. 399 

2. It should correspond to the sentiments expressed by 
the words. 

This general and obvious rule is better than any 
attempts to describe the particular expressions, or 
conformations of the features, which are appropriate 
to all the passions and emotions, in all their differ- 
ent degrees, and innumerable modifications. This, 
indeed, would not only be an endless task, but also 
it would leave nothing to the teaching of nature, in 
this department of her own language. The attempt 
to govern the expression of the countenance by spe- 
cial and minute rules, telling us where to blush, 
where to grow pale, where to frown, where to smiie, 
and where to weep — there can be no greater absurd- 
ity than this. The "feelings themselves, nothing else, 
can enable us to express them in the countenance ; 
and these, whenever they are in full and free activ- 
ity at the moment, will express themselves. 

This general rule, however, may serve to remind 
the student, that the countenance ought to corres- 
pond to the sentiments of the words, as they are 
spoken. For by these two modes of expression, 
brought to bear upon the audience at the same mo- 
ment, the power of the delivery is greatly increased. 
It should put him on his guard against indiscrimi- 
nate smiling and frowning. For not unfrequently 
the strenuous effort of speaking, is allowed to con- 
tract the features in a permanent frown ; and some 
speakers, even in their most pathetic passages, con- 
tinue to smile, showing their teeth on all occasions, 
which is extremely unpleasant. The rule also should 
call the attention to the incongruity of delivering 



4:00 The Elements of Powee. 

grave, solemn, sublime, sorrowful, or compassionate 
sentiments, with a scornful, smiling, or indifferent 
countenance ; and to that of delivering playful, witty, 
joyful, or animated passages, with a sober, sad, or 
mournful countenance. The rule, however, requires 
to be qualified in the expression of what is called, 
dry humor, or grotesque sentiments ; in which, the 
utmost soberness of face will often, by its very incon- 
gruity, greatly intensify the effect. 

§ 251. The eye is the most expressive of all the features ; it 
should be directed to the faces of the audience. 

1. The eye governs the expression of the other fea- 
tures. 

The expressive power of the human eye is so 
great that it determines, in a manner, the expression 
of the whole countenance. It is almost impossible 
to disguise it. It is said that gamblers rely more 
upon the study of the eye, to discover the state of 
their opponents' game, than upon any other means. 
Even animals are susceptible of its power. The dog 
watches the eyes of his master, and discovers from 
them, before a word is spoken, whether he is to ex- 
pect a caress, or apprehend chastisement. It is said 
that the lion cannot attack a man, so long as the 
man looks him steadily in the eyes. Joy and grief, 
anger, pride, scorn, hatred, love, jealousy, pity — in a 
word, all the passions and emotions of the human 
heart, in all their degrees and interworkings with 
each other, express themselves, with the utmost full- 
ness and power, in the eyes. Through them the 






Gesture. 401 

soul makes its most clear and vivid manifestations 
of itself. 

2. It should be kept upon the faces of the audience. 

In order that the speaker may avail himself of this 
great and mysterious power of expression, he must 
not allow his eyes to become fixed upon his manu- 
script ; nor to assume a Vacant expression, under 
the influence of the intellectual operations of inven- 
tion, or remembering; nor to wander around the 
walls of the audience room, or up to the ceiling, nor 
to follow the motions of the hands, as if the speaker 
were looking at them. He must look at the audi- 
ence, and scan their faces individually, in order to 
open a personal communication between himself 
and every one of them, so far as this is possible. 
He should not allow his eye to wander from the au- 
dience, except when this is required by some gesture. 
Thus he will be enabled to command their attention, 
and awaken their sympathy ; and his eye will natu- 
rally express and convey to them all the passions 
and emotions of his own heart (§§ 51 — 2 ; 52 — 2). 

§ 252. The gestures of tlie hands are capable of great ex- 
pression ; they are almost infinite in number and variety, 
and should be adapted to the words. 

1. The expression of the hands is inferior only to that 
of the countenance. 

Quintilian seems to regard the hands as nearly 
equal in power of expression to the countenance 
itself. " Without the hands," he says, " delivery 
would be maimed and feeble ; for in copiousness of 



402 The Elements of Power. 

expression, they almost equal words. Other parts 
of the body aid the speaker ; but, if I may so ex- 
press myself, the hands themselves speak. For 
with them do we not ask, promise, call, dismiss, 
threaten, supplicate, detest, fear, interrogate, deny ? 
With them do we not express joy, sorrow, doubt, 
confession, penitence, moderation, abundance, num- 
ber, time ? Do they not excite, beseech, forbid, 
prove, admire, and express shame? In pointing 
out places and persons, do they not perform the 
functions of adverbs and pronouns ? And amidst 
the so great diversity of tongues, in all races and 
nations, is not this language common to all men?" 

2. The number and variety of manual gestures is 
almost infinite ; they should accompany and increase 
Hue significance of the words. 

" Suit the action to the word, and word to the 
action." This is the direction of our great master, 
which covers the ground of all gesture. But to do 
this — hie labor > hoe opus. Here again almost every- 
thing must be left to nature, for the reasons given 
in § 31. " Let your discretion be your tutor." 
Yet there are certain points upon which more 
special directions may be of service. 

(1.) The hand should express variety or anima- 
tion. For this purpose its normal position in gestur- 
ing should be open, the ringers slightly curved, and 
touching each other, the thumb somewhat raised in 
front of the fingers, pointing in the same direction 
with them. When the thumb is too much raised, so as 



Gestuee. * 403 

to point backwards in a different direct' on, or stands 
at right angles to the fingers, it wants ease and grace ; 
and when it is expanded in the same plane with the 
fingers, the hand seems to be dead, or without expres- 
sion. In gesture, the fingers should move at then- 
joints, so as to partake of the motion of the arm. 
When the gesture is made with the arm, whilst the 
hand and fingers remain motionless, it is necessarily 
without expression. The hand must show that the 
speaker is ah alive, even to his finger nails. 

(2.) The whole arm should move with the hand. 
The gesture should not be made from the shoul- 
der, nor from the elbow, alone ; but the wrist joint 
and the fingers should partake of the motion. 

(3.) The right hand should be most used. Ges- 
tures with the left hand alone, should be much 
less frequent than with the right. When too fre- 
quent, they seem to indicate that the speaker is left- 
handed. They are useful, however, to aid in giving 
variety of motion, and to relieve the right hand, 
that its motions may not be too frequently re- 
peated. 

(4.) The double gesture should not be too fre- 
quent. The raising of both hands, with the arms 
expanded or curved, so as to correspond with each 
other, should seldom be employed, except when large- 
ness, wholeness, or universality, is to be expressed. 
This gesture, when too frequent, or without spe- 
cial significance, expresses dullness or stupidity. 
Whenever it is introduced, both hands should be 
raised and lowered at the same moment ; one 



404 , The Elements op Power. 

should never be brought up to the other, nor let 
fall while the other is held up. 

(5.) The index finger demonstrates. This ges- 
ture is very effective when some person or thing 
is to be pointed out, in sharp distinction from 
everything else ; also, in exhibiting some precise 
point in argument. Otherwise it should be seldom 
used. When too frequent, it becomes extremely 
insignificant and pointless. 

(6.) The clenched fist expresses the violent 
irascible passions. The hand should never be 
allowed to take this position, without special sig- 
nificance of the passions to which it is appropriate. 

(7.) Gesture should begin and end with the words. 
The sentiment in the Words should so prompt the 
gesture that it shall begin and end with them. 
When it precedes the words, or continues after they 
are finished, the effect is incongruous, and very dis- 
pleasing. 

(8.) Gesture should be more or less frequent and 
rapid according to the sentiment. In general, a 
due medium is to be observed between too great 
rapidity and frequency of gesture, and too little. 

(9.) After every gesture, the arm and hand should 
return to their normal position. Having made a 
gesture, the speaker should be satisfied with it, and 
end it. The hand should not keep repeating the 
same motion again and again, as if conscious of its 
feebleness, and impotently striving to give it some 
sort of expression. 

(10.) Errors in gesture, from Quintilian. "Some 
speakers raise the hand so high as to expose 



Gestuee. 405 

the whole side; others seem to want the power 
to draw it out of the bosom ; another thrusts it out 
to its full length ; another stretches it above his 
head ; another lays about him, so that it is unsafe 
to stand within his reach ; another describes a large 
sweep with his left hand. Some manage the hands 
with indolence or tremor ; others seem to saw the 
air; others use their hands as if they had claws, 
pawing with them ; others thrust out the arm 
almost on a line with the ear, expanding the hand, 
and inverting the thumb ; and this they call, speak- 
ing in a commanding posture. Others again twirl 
their fingers whenever they think they have said 
something smart ; another hems and coughs, as if 
something stuck in his throat; another blows and 
wipes his nose without necessity." 

§ 253. Gestures with the feet should be seldom used. 

It is lawful sometimes to emphasize a sentiment 
by stamping with the foot ; but such gestures must 
not be frequently repeated. Some speakers keep up 
a regular stroke of the foot upon the floor, every 
minute or two ; but this is a mere mannerism, which 
means nothing, and is offensive to good taste. It is 
lawful also to change the position on the feet while 
speaking, and even to walk backwards and forwards, 
in front of the audience ; but the speaker should not 
keep doing this all the time ; otherwise he may re- 
mind them of a wild beast in a cage. Occasionally 
he may rise on tiptoe, and lean forwards ; but this 
must not be done regularly or frequently. In gen- 



406 The Elements of Power. 

eral, all gestures which are made with, or which de- 
pend upon the feet, should be few and far between ; 
for the feet are the least honorable, and least expres- 
sive, of all the members of the body. 

§254. All mannerisms are to be carefully avoided. 

A mannerism in gesture is a motion which is 
either without significance, or which is frequently 
repeated without reference to its significance. Such 
mannerisms are the frequent stamping of the foot, 
running the fingers through the hair, adjusting the 
clothes, using the handkerchief without absolute 
necessity, hemming, coughing, spitting, placing the 
thumbs in the armholes of the vest, shrugging the 
shoulders, and the like. These, and all similar man 
nerisms, whether of voice or gesture, can never fai 
to mar and enfeeble the delivery. 



THE END. 



^ 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: Nov. 2007 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN COLLECTIONS PRESERVATION 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724)779-2111 



i*\ 



acq 




021 958 274 2 



